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LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF NONCONTINGENT REINFORCEMENT ON
BEHAVIOR MAINTAINED BY AUTOMATIC REINFORCEMENT
By
JANA SEITER LINDBERG
A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
2000
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank those who helped make this research possible. First, I thank
Dr. Brian Iwata, my advisor and supervisory committee chair, for teaching me to evaluate
and conduct behavioral research. His advice and support throughout this project have
been invaluable. I also thank the other committee members--Drs. Jennifer Asmus, Marc
Branch, Shari Ellis, and Timothy Vollmer--for their assistance. In addition, I thank my
colleagues, Gregory Hanley and Eileen Roscoe, who acted as therapists for the
experiments. Finally, I thank my husband, Brooks Lindberg, for believing in me and
cheering me on.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOW LEDGM ENTS............................................................................................... ii
LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................................ iv
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... v
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... I
Autom atic Reinforcem ent............................................................................................ 1
Assessment of Behaviors Maintained by Automatic Reinforcement............................. 2
Treatment of Behaviors Maintained by Automatic Reinforcement............................... 5
Noncontingent Reinforcem ent (NCR).......................................................................... 8
Rationale for Current Investigation............................................................................ 19
EXPERIM ENT 1 .......................................................................................................... 22
M ethods and Results ................................................................................................. 23
Participants and Setting......................................................................................... 23
Response M easurement and Reliability ................................................................. 24
Phase 1: Preference Assessment............................................................................ 24
Phase 2: Brief NCR Evaluation.............................................................................. 25
Phase 3: Extended NCR Evaluation....................................................................... 27
Discussion................................................................................................................. 30
EXPERIM ENT 2 .......................................................................................................... 32
M ethods and Results ................................................................................................. 33
Participants and Setting......................................................................................... 33
Response M easurement and Reliability ................................................................. 33
Phase 1: Functional Analysis................................................................................. 34
Phase 2: Preference Assessm ent............................................................................ 35
Phase 3: Brief NCR Evaluation.............................................................................. 39
Phase 4: Extended NCR Evaluation....................................................................... 41
Phase 5: Naturalistic NCR Evaluation.................................................................... 43
Discussion................................................................................................................. 44
GENERAL DISCUSSION ............................................................................................ 47
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 57
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ......................................................................................... 61
iii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figu= 3
1 Leisure item preference assessment results for Matthew and Angela...................... 26
2 Percentage of intervals of item contact for Matthew and Angela across 10-min
baseline and analog NCR sessions ......................................................................... 28
3 Percentage of intervals of item contact for Matthew and Angela across 120-min
NCR constant and NCR varied sessions.............................................................. 29
4 Rates of SIB for Laura and Robert across functional analysis conditions .............. 36
5 Leisure item preference assessment results for Laura and Robert.......................... 38
6 Rates of SIB for Laura and Robert across 10-min baseline and NCR sessions........ 40
7 Rates of SIB for Laura and Robert across 120-min NCR constant and NCR varied
sessions ................................................................... ............ ........ .....................42
8 Rates of SIB for Laura during 10-min observation periods at home....................... 45
Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School
of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF NONCONTINGENT REINFORCEMENT ON
BEHAVIOR MAINTAINED BY AUTOMATIC REINFORCEMENT
By
Jana Seiter Lindberg
May 2000
Chairman: Brian A. Iwata
Major Department: Psychology
The purpose of the current investigation was to evaluate the long-term effects of
noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) on behavior problems maintained by automatic
reinforcement. In the first experiment, treatment effects were examined by studying
behavior that can be considered analogous to the response options available when NCR is
used to treat self-injurious behavior (SIB) maintained by automatic reinforcement:
Manipulation of a low- or medium-preference leisure item was likened to engaging in
SIB maintained by automatic reinforcement, and manipulation of a high-preference item
was likened to manipulating a competing leisure item available during NCR. Two
individuals participated. An assessment was conducted to identify low-, medium-, and
high-preference leisure items. The effects of NCR were then evaluated during 10-min
and 120-min sessions.
In the second experiment, the effects of NCR were evaluated on the SIB of two
individuals. First, functional analyses were conducted to determine that the participants'
SIB was not maintained by social reinforcement. Assessments were also conducted to
identify leisure items associated with long durations of manipulation and low levels of
SIB. The effects of providing continuous access to a highly preferred leisure item were
then assessed during 10-min and 120-min sessions. Varied reinforcers were subsequently
delivered during 120-min sessions to determine if treatment effects might be extended.
The effects of using NCR all day were also assessed over several months for one
participant.
The results of Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrated that reinforcers obtained
through item manipulation can compete with the reinforcers obtained automatically by
engaging in SIB during brief NCR sessions. However, data from the 120-min sessions
indicated that NCR may lose its effectiveness when used for long periods of time.
Providing varied high-preference leisure items may extended the usefulness of NCR for
some individuals. When NCR was implemented all day, its therapeutic effects were
shown to last over several months. Thus, NCR may reduce some individuals' SIB over
long periods, but additional interventions may be necessary for others.
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the current investigation was to evaluate the long-term effects of
noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) on behavior problems maintained by automatic
reinforcement. To provide the reader with a background to the current research, this
paper will (a) explain the concept of automatic reinforcement, (b) describe how behavior
is shown to be maintained by automatic reinforcement, (c) summarize five treatment
strategies for behavior problems maintained by automatic reinforcement, (d) review the
history of noncontingent reinforcement as a treatment for behavior disorders, and (e)
explain the rationale for conducting the current study.
Automatic Reinforcement
Many persons with developmental disabilities engage in repetitive behaviors that
persist in the absence of social reinforcement. These behaviors are said to be maintained
by automatic reinforcement to the extent that they directly produce their own reinforcing
consequences. The concept of automatic reinforcement was first introduced by Skinner
(1953), who used the term to describe reinforcement that does not involve mediation by
another person. Vaughn and Michael (1982) clarified and extended the concept of
automatic reinforcement when they explained that automatic reinforcement "is a
'natural'result of behavior when it operates upon the behaver's own body or the
2
surrounding world. In general, the reinforcement may be conditioned or unconditioned,
positive or negative" (p. 219).
Assessment of Behaviors Maintained by Automatic Reinforcement
Identifying the influence of automatic reinforcement on behavior may be difficult
because reinforcement is produced directly by the behavior and often cannot be
manipulated independently of the behavior (Vollmer, 1994). Nevertheless, Shore and
Iwata (1999) suggested four strategies for assessing behavior that is suspected of being
maintained by automatic reinforcement. First, the behavior should be shown not to be
differentially sensitive to social consequences, which is best demonstrated by conducting
a functional analysis (Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, & Richman, 1982/1994), in which
an individual is exposed to test and control conditions. If the target behavior is not
differentially high in one or more of the test conditions for social reinforcement (i.e.,
attention or escape), results would suggest that the behavior is insensitive to social
contingencies. In other words, if behavior occurs at comparable across levels in all
conditions (e.g., Vollmer, Marcus, & LeBlanc, 1994) or occurs at lower levels in the test
conditions for social reinforcement than in the test condition for automatic reinforcement
(e.g., Kennedy & Souza, 1995), it is unlikely that the behavior is maintained by social
reinforcement.
The second step is to verify that the behavior persists in the absence of social
reinforcement, which is most often accomplished by observing the individual while
alone. Vollmer, Marcus, Ringdahl, and Roane (1995b) have suggested that, at the
conclusion of a functional analysis, an individual might be repeatedly observed while
alone to verify that the behavior continues to occur when the test conditions for social
3
reinforcement are no longer being conducted. Persistence of behavior in the absence of
social interaction rules out the possibility that undifferentiated functional analysis results
were caused by intermittent social reinforcement, idiosyncratic reinforcers, multiple
control, adjunctive schedules, or sequence effects.
Third, if the behavior operates on the external environment and produces an
observable response product, the consequence may be subject to manipulation. A
functional relation is demonstrated by showing that the behavior occurs when it produces
the observable consequence but does not occur when the consequence is prevented. For
example, Rincover (1978) controlled one individual's level of plate spinning by
attenuating the auditory stimulus produced by the behavior. The individual spun the plate
more often when the table was left bare; plate spinning decreased when carpet was placed
on the table.
If the behavior does not produce an observable consequence or if it produces a
consequence that is difficult to manipulate, then substitutable reinforcers may be
identified that compete with the behavior. Substitutable reinforcers are "different
reinforcers that are nevertheless interchangeable under certain conditions" (Shore, Iwata,
DeLeon, Kahng, & Smith, 1997, p. 130). Finding substitutable reinforcers may help
identify the nature of the automatic reinforcer that maintains the target behavior because
the reinforcers may share common properties.
It has also been suggested (Vollmer, 1994) that if behavior occurs at high rates in
all functional analysis conditions, a medical examination should be conducted to
determine if the behavior is maintained by automatic negative reinforcement. Behavior
maintained by automatic negative reinforcement attenuates or delays aversive
4
physiological stimulation. For example, scratching may reduce irritation caused by skin
conditions, and head hitting may attenuate pain caused from a headache or ear infection.
Behavior maintained by automatic negative reinforcement is likely to occur whenever the
individual experiences pain or discomfort. Thus, if the behavior occurs across all
conditions or if the behavior occurs in a cyclical pattern, the behavior may be maintained
by automatic negative reinforcement, and the source of discomfort should be identified
and eliminated whenever possible.
These strategies have been used to assess a number of behaviors exhibited by
individuals with developmental disabilities. Researchers have found that automatic
reinforcement has maintained behaviors such as eye poking (Kennedy & Souza, 1995;
Lalli, Livezey, & Kates, 1996), face slapping (Van Houten, 1993), hand mouthing (Goh
et al., 1995; Mazaleski, Iwata, Rodgers, Vollmer, & Zarcone, 1994), hand biting
(Ringdahl, Vollmer, Marcus, & Roane, 1997; Vollmer et al., 1994), hair pulling (Rapp,
Miltenberger, Galensky, Ellingson, & Long, 1999), head banging (Ringdahl et al., 1997;
Vollmer et al., 1994), pica (Piazza et al., 1998), property destruction (Fisher, Lindauer,
Alterson, & Thompson, 1998), skin picking and rubbing (Roscoe, Iwata, & Goh, 1998;
Shore et al., 1997), and stereotypy (Fisher et al., 1998). In a large-scale experimental
study (Iwata et al., 1994), functional analysis data from 152 individuals who engaged in
various forms of self-injurious behavior (SIB) indicated that automatic reinforcement
accounted for 25.7% of the cases. Thus, automatic reinforcement appears to be a
significant source of reinforcement for many behavior problems.
5
Treatment of Behaviors Maintained by Automatic Reinforcement
There are several reinforcement-based treatments that decrease behaviors
maintained by automatic reinforcement. These treatments can be categorized into three
different approaches: altering establishing operations, limiting reinforcement for the
behavior, and strengthening competing behaviors.
Michael (1993) described an establishing operation as "an environmental event,
operation, or stimulus condition that affects an organism by momentarily altering (a) the
reinforcing effectiveness of other events and (b) the frequency of occurrence of that part
of the organism's repertoire relevant to those events as consequences" (p. 192). The most
common establishing operations for behavior maintained by positive and negative
reinforcement are deprivation and aversive stimulation, respectively. Thus, behavior
maintained by positive reinforcement may be less likely to occur if the individual is
satiated to the reinforcer maintaining the behavior; behavior maintained by negative
reinforcement is unlikely to occur when the aversive stimulation is no longer present.
Another approach to treating behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement is
to limit reinforcement for the target behavior. This may be accomplished by
extinguishing the behavior or by increasing the effort required to engage in the response.
Extinction requires the discontinuation or attenuation of the reinforcement maintaining
the behavior. Rincover (1978) reported using extinction to decrease the stereotypic
behaviors of three individuals. For example, the behavior of one individual who twirled a
plate on a table decreased when the sound produced by the behavior was attenuated by
carpeting the table. Vibrators were attached to the backs of two other individuals' hands
to attenuate the stimulation produced by finger flapping (one child) and object twirling
6
(second child). In other studies, investigators have used protective equipment to reduce
the stimulation produced by behavior (Dorsey, Iwata, Reid, & Davis, 1982; Parrish,
Aguerrevere, Dorsey, & Iwata, 1980).
Zhou, Goff, and Iwata (2000) demonstrated that increasing response effort is
another viable way to limit reinforcement for behaviors maintained by automatic
reinforcement. Four individuals who engaged in high levels of hand mouthing even
when they had access to preferred leisure items participated. When they wore soft,
flexible sleeves that increased resistance for elbow flexion, the participants engaged in
lower levels of hand mouthing. Interestingly, application of the device did not interfere
with the high levels of object manipulation exhibited by two individuals and actually
increased object manipulation by the remaining two participants.
Finally, behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement may be decreased by
strengthening competing behaviors through differential reinforcement. This approach
usually involves delivering reinforcement contingent on the occurrence of appropriate
behavior and withholding reinforcement contingent on the occurrence of problem
behavior. For example, Wacker et al. (1990) used differential reinforcement of
alternative behavior (DRA) to decrease one individual's stereotypy. The individual was
given access to a rocking chair contingent on emitting an appropriate communicative
response. Favell, McGinsey, and Schell (1982) found that the SIB of 6 individuals
decreased when participants had access to alternative activities. SIB decreased even
further when object manipulation was reinforced. Cowdery, Iwata, and Pace (1990) used
differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) to decrease the severe SIB of one
7
individual; the individual received access to video games and other preferred activities
contingent on the nonoccurrence of SIB.
In summary, treatments based on altering establishing operations, limiting
reinforcement for the behavior, and strengthening competing behaviors have been shown
to reduce problem behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement. However, the latter
two approaches have limitations that may make them less attractive than the first
approach. In order to implement extinction, the source of reinforcement must be
identified and controlled. This is difficult because behavior may produce multiple forms
of stimulation, and even if identified, intrusive measures (i.e., protective equipment) may
be required to limit reinforcement of the response. Increasing response effort may also
be problematic because some form of equipment is usually required, and in some cases
the response topography does not easily lend itself to increasing the effort required to
engage in the response. For example, it would be difficult to increase the effort required
to engage in problem behavior such as head banging, echolalia, or spitting. Treatment
approaches based on strengthening alternative responses may be unsuccessful if highly
preferred reinforcers cannot be identified: Reinforcers that are more valuable than the
automatic reinforcer obtained by engaging in problem behavior are required for
differential reinforcement procedures because it is usually not possible to put the target
behavior on extinction. Thus, a typical differential reinforcement procedure is much like
a concurrent reinforcement schedule in which the individual receives one reinforcer for
the problem behavior or another reinforcer for the alternative behavior.
Treatment approaches based on altering establishing operations are advantageous
because they are usually easy for caregivers to implement and may be effective even
8
when the target behavior continues to be reinforced. The latter advantage is especially
important because the reinforcers maintaining the behavior may be impossible to identify
and control. One of the most common methods of altering establishing operations is
noncontingent reinforcement (NCR).
Noncontingent Reinforcement (NCR)
NCR involves the delivery of a reinforcer according to a schedule that is
independent of the occurrence of specific behavior. The effects of NCR were
demonstrated in an early study (Rescorla & Skucy, 1969) in which NCR was compared
to extinction. During baseline, bar-pressing by rats was reinforced with food pellets
according to a variable-interval (VI) schedule. Subsequently, some of the rats were
exposed to an extinction condition in which no food was delivered, whereas others were
exposed to an NCR procedure in which food pellets were delivered on a variable-time
(VT) schedule in which the rate of reinforcement was yoked to that received by a third
group of rats that continued to receive reinforcement for bar-pressing on a VI schedule.
Both extinction and NCR decreased bar-pressing by rats, but response suppression was
greater with extinction.
The term noncontingentt reinforcement" has been the subject of recent debate
(Poling & Normand, 1999; Vollmer, 1999). The term has been used to describe a
procedure in which a stimulus with known reinforcing properties is delivered according
to response-independent or time-based schedule (Vollmer, Iwata, Zarcone, Smith, &
Mazaleski, 1993). However, Poling and Normand criticized the practice of using the
term "reinforcement" to describe a situation in which the delivery of a stimulus does not
result in an increase in any behavior that is measured. The authors argued that the
9
function of a stimulus can vary depending on the context: A stimulus may function as a
reinforcer in one setting when it is delivered on one schedule, but it may not increase
behavior in another setting or when delivered according to another schedule. Thus, the
authors concluded that "the fact that a stimulus is a positive reinforcer in one context
does not justify terming it a positive reinforcer in a context in which its delivery reduces
responding" (p. 237).
Vollmer (1999) agreed that the term noncontingent reinforcement is problematic
and encouraged researchers to describe their procedures in operational terms such as
"fixed-time attention" or "fixed-time escape." However, he proposed that the term
noncontingent reinforcement has served a good purpose because it seems to have led
behavior analysts to recognize the potential of NCR as a general class of procedures
rather than as a unique application of a time-based schedule. Vollmer explained that,
"Calling the procedure NCR gave it status as a treatment package on par with DRO
[differential reinforcement of other behavior], insofar as both names describe a general
procedure that is not limited to any particular stimulus or event" (p. 240). In addition,
NCR has the advantage of capturing an important aspect of the procedure that terms like
"fixed-time attention" or "response-independent escape" do not: The stimulus delivered
has been shown to be a reinforcer for the participant and, in most cases, is the same
stimulus that has been shown to maintain the target behavior. For these reasons, the term
noncontingent reinforcement, or NCR, will be used to describe past research and the
current investigation.
NCR has been used to treat a number of behavior problems maintained by social
reinforcement. Usually, when the target behavior is maintained by social reinforcement,
10
the reinforcer that maintains the target behavior is no longer delivered following the
target behavior during NCR. Instead, the maintaining reinforcer is usually delivered
according to a time-based schedule (i.e., independently of the target behavior). Thus, the
maintaining reinforcer is still delivered, but the dependency between the target behavior
and reinforcement is discontinued.
An example of how NCR may be used as treatment for behavior maintained by
social reinforcement was described by Mace and Lalli (1991), who found that one
individual's bizarre vocalizations were maintained by social positive reinforcement in the
form of attention. The authors developed two treatments to decrease the vocalizations:
NCR and communication training. In the NCR condition, attention was delivered
according to a VT schedule. During communication training, the individual was first
taught to initiate a conversation and was then taught to expand the conversation by asking
questions or offering contextually appropriate information. Both interventions effectively
decreased bizarre vocalizations.
Vollmer et al. (1993) compared the effects of two interventions, DRO and NCR,
on the SIB of three individuals. The authors conducted a functional analysis of the
participants' SIB and found that each subject's target behavior was maintained by social
positive reinforcement in the form of attention. The participants were then exposed to
DRO and NCR in either multielement or reversal designs. During DRO sessions, a
therapist delivered attention to the participant contingent on the absence of SIB for a
specified interval. During NCR sessions, a therapist delivered attention to the participant
based on an FT schedule. DRO and NCR produced comparable decreases in SIB;
however, the authors recommended NCR over DRO for several reasons: (a) extinction-
11
induced behavior was attenuated for 2 of the 3 participants during NCR, (b) the
participants received more reinforcers during NCR, and (c) NCR was easier to implement
because caregivers were not required to constantly monitor the participant and reset the
DRO interval each time the target behavior occurred.
Hagopian, Fisher, and Legacy (1994) examined the effects of dense versus lean
schedules of NCR on the destructive behaviors of four children. The authors first
conducted a functional analysis and found that the children's target behaviors were
maintained by attention. The authors then compared a dense NCR schedule, in which the
participant received attention continuously, to a lean schedule, in which the individual
received attention once every 5 min. Results showed that the dense NCR schedule
produced immediate and dramatic reductions in destructive behavior in all four
participants, whereas the lean schedule was much less effective. Following this
comparison, the dense NCR schedule was successfully thinned from FT 10 s to FT 5 min.
Fischer, Iwata, and Mazaleski (1997) used NCR in the absence of extinction to
decrease two participants' SIB. The authors studied the extent to which noncontingent
delivery of arbitrary reinforcers (i.e., reinforcers that are irrelevant to behavioral
maintenance) would decrease problem behaviors maintained by social reinforcement.
Results of a functional analysis demonstrated that one participant's SIB was maintained
by attention, and the other's SIB was maintained by access to a preferred clothing item.
An additional assessment also demonstrated that preferred food items did not maintain
either participant's SIB. During NCR, the target behaviors continued to produce their
maintaining reinforcers, while preferred food items were delivered on an FT schedule.
12
Even though the target behavior continued to be reinforced, the behavior decreased
during NCR.
Vollmer, Marcus, and Ringdahl (1995a) extended research on NCR by using the
procedure to decrease behavior maintained by social negative reinforcement in the form
of escape from instructional activities. Two young men who engaged in SIB participated
in the study. A functional analysis was conducted, and the results suggested that both
participants' target behavior was maintained by escape. During NCR, escape from a
learning task was provided on an FT schedule. Initially, escape was provided
continuously, but the schedule was gradually thinned to FT 2.5 min for one participant
and to FT 10 min for the other. The authors found that NCR was an effective treatment
for behavior maintained by escape.
NCR has also been used as a treatment for behavior problems maintained by
automatic reinforcement In these cases, it is usually not possible to deliver the same
reinforcer that maintains the target behavior because the target behavior produces a
product that cannot be manipulated or delivered independently of the behavior.
Nonetheless, Shore and Iwata (1999) have observed that providing "access to similar
(substitutable) but different reinforcement might abolish the establishing effects of either
deprivation or aversive stimulation" (p. 132). In most cases, NCR procedures for
behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement have involved providing continuous
access to leisure items. In some studies, authors have reported providing continuous
access to food (Favell et al., 1982; Piazza et al., 1998) or to some other stimulus (e.g.,
Bailey & Meyerson, 1970).
13
In one study (Bailey & Meyerson, 1970), a child's severe SIB decreased when a
vibrator was activated that made the mattress of his crib shake. Providing the vibration
noncontingently during 10-min periods was more effective than providing vibration for 6
s contingent on lever-pressing. One interesting aspect of this study was that, during
NCR, the participant was not required to do anything to obtain the reinforcer (vibration).
In a number of other studies, NCR involved providing leisure items that the
participants could manipulate in order to access reinforcement. For example, in one
study (Lockwood & Bourland, 1982), continuous access to leisure items was shown to
decrease hand biting in one participant and arm biting and face slapping in another.
Leisure items, such as colorful rubber and soft plastic toys, were selected that were
thought to provide stimulation similar to that provided by the target behaviors.
Incidentally, the authors found that noncontingent access to the leisure items was most
effective when the leisure items were attached to the participants' wheelchairs rather than
left loose on the participants' laps.
Favell et al. (1982) decreased the SIB of 6 individuals by providing alternate
activities that produced sensory stimulation similar to that apparently obtained from
engaging in the target behaviors. One individual who chewed and sucked on his hands
was given large, soft items that could be mouthed. Two individuals who engaged in eye-
poking were given leisure items with striking visual properties. Three individuals who
engaged in pica were given popcorn and leisure items that required hand manipulation.
SIB decreased substantially when participants had access to these items and decreased
even further when object manipulation was reinforced.
14
Vollmer et al. (1994) demonstrated the importance of providing preferred items
during NCR to obtain decreases in SIB. Functional analyses were conducted for three
participants, and results suggested that all three participants' target behavior was
maintained by automatic reinforcement. A preference assessment was also conducted to
identify preferred leisure or food items for the participants.
The authors then compared the effects of providing continuous, noncontingent
access to preferred versus non-preferred items and found that noncontingent access to
preferred stimuli produced decreases in SIB for all participants, whereas noncontingent
access to non-preferred stimuli had little effect on behavior. To obtain further decreases
in SIB, the authors reinforced the object manipulation of two participants, and manually
restrained one of these two participants for 5 s following occurrences of SIB. The
authors also found that NCR began to lose its effects for one participant until another
preference assessment was conducted and new items were made available during NCR.
In the final phase, two participants' families were trained to implement treatment
packages that included the NCR procedure for one hour per day. The authors visited the
participants' homes once per week for 7 weeks to evaluate the effectiveness of the
intervention package. Follow-up data were also collected for one participant one and five
months later. Results indicated that the intervention remained effective for both
participants when implemented under naturalistic conditions.
Shore et al. (1997) suggested that the results of many studies on NCR as a
treatment for behavior problems maintained by automatic reinforcement may be analyzed
in terms of reinforcer substitutability. The effects of NCR depend on the relation
between the arbitrary reinforcer that is delivered noncontingently and the reinforcer
15
obtained through engaging in the target behavior. Three relations are possible:
complementarity, substitutability, and independence. "Substitutability describes a
continuum of interactions between concurrently available reinforcers. At one end of the
continuum are complementary reinforcers, for which increased consumption of one
alternative results in increased consumption of its complement.... At the other end of the
continuum are substitutable reinforcers, for which an increase in consumption of one
alternative results in decreased consumption of its substitute.... In the middle of the
continuum, reinforcers are independent: Consumption of one has minimal effect of
consumption of another" (p. 23). Therefore, if the reinforcer delivered noncontingently
and the reinforcer obtained through the target behavior are complementary, the target
behavior would increase. If the two are substitutable, NCR would produce decreases in
the target behavior, and if the two are independent, the treatment may have no effect.
Shore et al. (1997) examined the relation between the automatic reinforcement
obtained through SIB and the reinforcement obtained through leisure item manipulation.
They first conducted a functional analysis of the SIB of three individuals to determine
that the behavior was maintained by automatic reinforcement. Probes were then
conducted to identify leisure items that appeared to produce reinforcers substitutable for
SIB. The authors then evaluated the effects of NCR using the leisure items identified in
the probes. NCR produced large decreases in SIB for all three participants.
Shore et al. (1997) conducted two additional experiments to investigate further the
extent to which arbitrary reinforcers would compete with those obtained through SIB. In
one experiment, the authors evaluated the effects of delivering the leisure items according
to various DRO schedules but failed to observe clinically significant reductions in SIB
16
for any of the 3 participants. In the final experiment, the authors altered the effort
required to manipulate preferred leisure items while keeping constant the effort required
to engage in SIB. Response effort of item manipulation was altered by anchoring objects
to a lap tray with a string and varying the length of the string. When the string was at full
length, the individual could manipulate the object while seated in an upright position. As
the string was shortened, the individual had to bend over further and further to
manipulate the item. The authors found that when the string was at full length, the
participants engaged in high levels of object manipulation and low levels of SIB. As the
string was shortened, object manipulation decreased and SIB increased, until a switch in
preference between object manipulation and SIB was observed. These results illustrate
that the relationship between two reinforcers (in this case, the reinforcer maintaining SIB
and the reinforcer obtained through object manipulation) depends on the context in which
they are presented.
Two recent studies (Goh et al., 1995; Piazza et al., 1998) have indirectly
investigated the nature of the automatic reinforcer that maintains behavior by finding
substitutable reinforcers and identifying the specific aspects of reinforcement that may
make them substitutable. Goh et al. conducted functional analyses of the hand mouthing
of 12 individuals. Results from 10 of the 12 individuals' assessments suggested that the
target behavior was maintained by automatic reinforcement; results for the remaining two
individuals suggested that the behavior was maintained by social positive reinforcement.
Four of the individuals whose hand mouthing appeared to be maintained by automatic
reinforcement participated in a second experiment to identify the possible specific
sources of reinforcement for the target behavior. The participants were given access to
17
an object they had been observed to manipulate outside of sessions while the
experimenters measured the participants' levels of hand-mouth, hand-item, and mouth-
item contact. Results indicated that they preferred hand-item contact. In the next
experiment, the experimenters measured hand-mouth, hand-item, and mouth-item contact
of five individuals across a variety of leisure items. All five individuals engaged in
greater levels of hand-item contact than hand-mouth or mouth-item contact. From these
data, the authors concluded that hand stimulation may have been the more important
reinforcing aspect of hand mouthing for these individuals.
Piazza et al. (1998) conducted functional analyses of the pica of three individuals.
Results of the assessment suggested that the pica of one participant was maintained by
automatic reinforcement and the pica of the other two participants appeared to be
maintained by both automatic and social reinforcement. Next, the authors conducted
preference assessments to find stimuli that would compete with pica. They assessed
stimuli that produced oral stimulation (matched stimuli) and stimuli that produced other
types of stimulation (unmatched stimuli). The authors hypothesized that pica was
maintained by the oral stimulation it produced. To test this hypothesis, the authors
presented preferred matched stimuli in one condition and preferred unmatched stimuli in
another condition. Pica occurred at lower levels in the matched stimuli condition for 2 of
the 3 participants.
The two individuals who exhibited lower levels of pica during the matched
stimuli condition participated in a more detailed assessment to identify the aspect of oral
stimulation that served as reinforcement. The authors hypothesized that firmness (rather
than taste or other aspects of texture) was an important component of pica for the
18
individuals and assessed items with varying degrees of firmness (e.g., rice cakes, carrot
sticks, tofu, gelatin, etc.). When the participants had access to firm items, they engaged
in lower levels of pica than when they had access to soft items. These results supported
the hypothesis that firmness was an important aspect of reinforcement for pica for these
individuals.
Roscoe et al. (1998) compared the effects of NCR to those of protective
equipment on the SIB of three individuals. They first conducted a functional analysis and
found that all three individuals' target behaviors were maintained by automatic
reinforcement. Next, the authors conducted probes to identify a leisure item for each
individual that would effectively compete with SIB. The leisure items selected were a
massager, a plastic ring, and a small musical keyboard. Additional probes were
conducted to identify the least intrusive form of protective equipment that effectively
decreased each participant's form of SIB. Foam sleeves were selected for one individual
who rubbed and hit his arms against hard stationary surfaces, boxing gloves were selected
for the participant who engaged in hand mouthing, and latex gloves were selected for the
participant who picked and rubbed her skin. The authors conducted alone baseline
sessions and then compared the effects of NCR and protective-equipment sessions in
multielement designs. Both procedures effectively decreased SIB, but the authors
recommended using NCR because (a) it produced slightly more rapid or more complete
suppression, (b) it required little effort to implement, and (c) it occasioned appropriate
alternative behaviors.
The above research has demonstrated that NCR can effectively decrease behavior
maintained by automatic reinforcement. Recent studies have highlighted the importance
19
of selecting highly preferred reinforcers to be delivered during NCR (Piazza et al., 1998;
Vollmer et al., 1994). Results from other studies have suggested that it may be beneficial
to present stimuli that appear to provide stimulation similar to that obtained through the
target behavior (Favell et al., 1982; Goh et al., 1995; Lockwood & Bourland, 1982;
Piazza et al., 1998; Shore et al., 1997). However, even when highly preferred or
presumably matched reinforcers are delivered, sometimes NCR is not effective and
additional procedures are necessary (Lindberg, Iwata, & Kahng, 1999; Ringdahl et al.,
1997; Vollmer et al., 1994).
Rationale for Current Investigation
Research on noncontingent reinforcement has demonstrated that the intervention
can be used to reduce a variety of behavior problems. However, these findings are based
on evaluations of NCR during brief experimental sessions, ranging in duration from 5-15
min. It is unclear if the intervention would remain effective when evaluated over longer
periods of time. This is particularly questionable when NCR is used to decrease behavior
maintained by automatic reinforcement.
To understand why the effects of NCR are less likely to be maintained over time
when the procedure is used to treat behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement than
when NCR is used for behavior maintained by social reinforcement, it is important to
understand several key differences between the two procedures: the inclusion or
exclusion of an extinction component, the relationship of the stimulus delivered
noncontingently to the stimulus maintaining the target behavior, and the effects of
extended exposure to noncontingent reinforcement.
20
A behavior maintained by social reinforcement persists during baseline because
the maintaining reinforcer is delivered by another individual. When NCR is
implemented, the maintaining reinforcer is usually no longer delivered contingent on the
target response. By contrast, a behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement persists
during baseline because it directly produces the reinforcer. Because the target behavior is
maintained by automatic reinforcement, occurrences of the behavior continue to produce
reinforcement during treatment. Thus, in the first case, NCR can include an extinction
component, whereas in the second case, it usually cannot.
The second key difference between NCR for behavior maintained by social
reinforcement and NCR for behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement involves the
relationship of the stimulus delivered noncontingently to the stimulus maintaining the
target behavior. When NCR is used to decrease a behavior maintained by social
reinforcement, the same reinforcer that maintains the target behavior is usually delivered
during treatment. By contrast, when NCR is used to treat behavior maintained by
automatic reinforcement, an arbitrary reinforcer is delivered that competes with the
maintaining reinforcer.
Given the above considerations, satiation to the reinforcer delivered during NCR
would have different effects depending on whether the intervention is used to treat a
behavior maintained by social or automatic reinforcement. When the intervention is used
for behavior maintained by social reinforcement, satiation to the reinforcer being
delivered noncontingently would not cause the target behavior to increase because the
reinforcer maintaining the behavior is being delivered noncontingently. By contrast,
when NCR is implemented to treat behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement,
21
satiation to the noncontingent reinforcer may lead to an increase in the target response
because the reinforcer delivered noncontingently is an arbitrary reinforcer. Satiation to
the arbitrary reinforcer may not alter the establishing operation of the target behavior;
once consumption of the noncontingent reinforcer decreases, the individual may be
motivated to engage in the target behavior. These satiation effects, if they occur, are
more likely to be observed when NCR is evaluated over longer periods of time.
The purpose of the current investigation was to determine whether NCR involving
the delivery of arbitrary reinforcers leads to reemergence of problem behavior due to
satiation. A secondary purpose was to determine if satiation could be mitigated through
the use of multiple reinforcers. Two experiments were conducted. In the first, the long-
term effects of NCR were investigated in an analog situation. To accomplish this goal,
two individuals' patterns of leisure item manipulation were investigated under a variety
of conditions. In the second experiment, the long-term effects of NCR on SIB were
investigated. Two individuals who engaged in SIB maintained by automatic
reinforcement participated.
EXPERIMENT 1
The purpose of this experiment was to evaluate the long-term effects of NCR by
observing the relationship between behavior that was hypothesized to be analogous to
target and alternative behaviors when NCR is used to treat behavior maintained by
automatic reinforcement. Manipulation of a low- or moderate-preference leisure item
was considered analogous to engaging in SIB, whereas manipulation of a high-preference
leisure item was likened to consuming the competing reinforcer (i.e., playing with a toy
or eating food) that is delivered noncontingently during treatment. Engaging in SIB was
compared to manipulating a lesser-preferred leisure item, and consuming the arbitrary
noncontingentt) reinforcer was compared to manipulating a more-preferred item because,
when NCR is effective, the participant allocates more time to consuming the arbitrary
reinforcer and less time engaging in SIB. We selected leisure items that were
differentially preferred by the participant so as to increase the likelihood that the
individual would manipulate one item more than the other during NCR.
During baseline, one leisure item was available. This was considered comparable
to the conditions that exist when levels of SIB maintained by automatic reinforcement are
measured during typical baseline sessions: The individual is placed in a situation in
which little reinforcement is available except by engaging in SIB. During the analogue
NCR sessions, two leisure items were available concurrently. This situation was likened
to the conditions of a treatment session in that, during NCR, the individual may access
22
23
reinforcement by engaging in SIB or by consuming the reinforcer that is delivered
noncontingently.
The study was conducted in 3 phases. In the first phase, participants' preferences
for a number of leisure items were assessed. In the second phase, participants' levels of
object manipulation with one or two items were recorded during brief sessions. In the
third phase, levels of object manipulation were recorded during extended sessions.
Methods and Results
Participants and Setting
Two individuals enrolled in a sheltered workshop program for persons with
developmental disabilities participated. Matthew was a 32-yr-old man diagnosed with
mental retardation. He was ambulatory, could follow multi-step instructions, and
communicated vocally. Angela was a 38-yr-old woman also diagnosed with mental
retardation. She was ambulatory and could follow simple one- and two-step instructions.
Angela could communicate vocally but, due to articulation problems, she often
communicated with gestures and a few manual signs. Neither Matthew nor Angela
engaged in any behavior problems.
All sessions were conducted on the grounds of the sheltered workshop. The
sessions for one participant were conducted in an area that had a small table and a few
chairs, which was partitioned off from the main workshop area. The second participant's
sessions were conducted in a conference room with a large table and several chairs.
Response Measurement and Reliability
The dependent variable was object manipulation, which was defined as physical
hand contact with (e.g., touching, holding) a leisure item. Data were collected on
handheld computers during continuous 10-s intervals and were summarized as the
percentage of intervals during which responding occurred. Interobserver agreement was
assessed by having a second observer independently collect data during 38.5% and 47.0%
of Matthew's and Angela's sessions, respectively. Observers' records were compared on
an interval-by-interval basis. An interval was considered an agreement if both observers
scored either the presence or absence of behavior. Agreement coefficients were
calculated by dividing the number of intervals containing agreements by the total number
of intervals and multiplying by 100%. Mean agreement scores were 99.0% (range,
96.7% to 100%) and 97.3% (range, 74.4% to 100%), respectively, for Matthew's and
Angela's leisure item manipulation.
Phase 1: Preference Assessment
The participants' preferences for a number of leisure items were assessed using
procedures described by Fisher et al. (1992). Before the assessment, the therapist
familiarized the participants with each leisure item. Then, each item was paired once
with every other item, with the order of presentation determined randomly. On each trial,
two leisure items were placed next to each other and approximately 30 cm in front of the
participant. An approach response to one item produced 30-s access to that item while
the other item was removed. Attempts to approach both items were blocked. If neither
stimulus was approached within 5 s, the therapist prompted the participant to sample each
25
item and then repeated the trial. If the participant did not approach either item when the
trial was repeated, the therapist removed both items and initiated a new trial.
Figure 1 shows the percentage of trials on which each item was selected during
the leisure item assessment. The items are listed from left to right in descending order
based on the number of trials on which they were selected. Matthew selected the beads
and string at every opportunity, and the sports magazine only once. The beads and string
were selected as the high-preference item for inclusion in Phase 2. The sports magazine
was selected as the low-preference item because it was clearly less preferred than the
beads and string, but it was still selected on at least some of the trials. Angela selected
the coloring book and crayons most often, and the mirror least often. The balloon was
selected on 44.4% of the trials. The coloring book and crayons were selected as the high-
preference item; the balloon was selected as the low-preference. The puzzle and the
beads and string were selected as Angela's additional high-preference items for inclusion
in Phase 3.
Phase 2: Brief NCR Evaluation
In the second phase, the effects of NCR were evaluated during 10-min sessions
using a multiple baseline design. A reversal design was also used during Angela's
assessment. During baseline, the participant had access to a low-preference item; during
NCR, both a low-preference and a high-preference item were available. At the beginning
of each session, the appropriate number of items was placed on a table in front of the
participant. The participant was not given any instructions regarding item contact. At the
conclusion of the session, the participant was informed that the session was over, and the
HP Matthew
100- H -
75- ..I .
.._ .. ....-- .
50
.1 I %% '..o I o!oIoUoIo
0 0.
^m
HP00 Angela
CL4 ^ HP
75-I I
50- I II ||I I^
i .% '.o% '.%%.o1 a
0 i- r% "%*% "0%
.. .. .. .... .. .
.. :. :.. :. ..:..:.. ..:..:.:
.o Oo % ,, % ,,OoO,,,,o1^
U Stimuli
Figure 1: Leisure item preference assessment results for Matthew and Angela
.. ...% Oo .....o~ .....,~o
.~ .... ... ..O.oOOo
,% % o.o... % ... ... ... ..
.. .....:: .::::: ..... ..... ....
~. ... .... i i
.. .. .... .. .. .....
25 .. .. .. .. ..
.....~~ ...................
.... ... .. ... .. ..
0 I I I
75 ....) ..
Stiul
Figure .....eiempeeec assmn esl o athwadAgl
27
materials were removed from the table. The therapist did not praise or otherwise
reinforce object manipulation.
Figure 2 shows the percentage of intervals of item contact for Matthew (top
panel) and Angela (bottom panel). When only the low-preference item was available, the
participants manipulated the item at high levels throughout the baseline sessions. The
mean level of item manipulation during baseline sessions was 96.0% (range, 88.3 to
100%) and 74.2 (range, 43.1 to 100%) for Matthew and Angela, respectively. When both
the low- and high-preference items were available, Matthew and Angela manipulated the
high-preference item during an average of 98.6% (range, 93.1 to 100%) and 97.6%
(range, 92.0 to 100%) of the intervals, respectively. Manipulation of the low-preference
item quickly dropped to zero for both participants.
Phase 3: Extended NCR Evaluation
The effects of NCR were evaluated during 120-min sessions using a reversal
design. During the first condition, NCR constant, the individual had access to the low-
and high-preference leisure items. This condition was identical to the NCR condition in
Phase 2. During the second condition, NCR varied, the individual had access to the low-
preference item and to three different high-preference leisure items. During this
condition, all of the items were placed on a table in front of the participant, who was
allowed to manipulate any of the items throughout the session.
Figure 3 shows percentage of intervals of item contact during 120-min sessions.
Responding in each session is divided into 20-min blocks. When the low- and high-
preference items were available, Matthew manipulated the high-preference item to the
exclusion of the low-preference item. This pattern of results was observed over four 120-
Analog NCR
\LP
LP
/
HP
Matthew
m M E(
BL
Analog NCR
Angela
Sessions
Figure 2: Percentage of intervals of item contact for Matthew and Angela
across 10-min baseline and analog NCR sessions
100-
75-
50-
Baseline
NCR Constant
t--.--
Constant Varied
Constant
10 20 30 40
20-min Segments
Figure 3: Percentage of intervals of item contact for Matthew and Angela
across 120-min NCR constant and NCR varied sessions
100
75
LP
Matthew
30
min sessions. His mean level of object manipulation of the high-preference item was
99.3% (range 94.0% to 100%). Because Matthew never manipulated the low-preference
item during the 120-min NCR sessions, he was not given additional high-preference
items.
When the low- and high-preference items were made available to Angela during
the 120-min sessions, she manipulated the high-preference item initially, but as the
session progressed, she began manipulating the low-preference item more often.
However, when she was given access to varied high-preference items, manipulation of
the high-preference items remained high throughout the 120-min sessions (M = 96.4%;
range, 83.9% to 100%), whereas manipulation of the low-preference item remained at or
near zero (M = 0.1%; range, 0% to 2.0%). These results were replicated when the NCR
constant and the NCR varied conditions were presented a second time in a reversal
design.
Discussion
Results of this study indicated that during brief sessions, reinforcement obtained through
manipulation of a high-preference item competed with that obtained through
manipulation of a low-preference item. However, during 120-min sessions, one of the
two participants (Angela) showed apparent satiation to the reinforcer obtained through
manipulation of the high-preference item, as reflected by decreased levels of contact with
the high-preference item and a subsequent increase in levels of contact with the low-
preference item. The effects of satiation appear to have been ameliorated when varied
high-preference items were available because contact with the high-preference items
31
remained high during extended sessions, whereas contact with the low-preference item
remained low.
These data suggest that when NCR is used to treat behaviors maintained by
automatic reinforcement, the treatment may lose its effects for some individuals when it
is implemented over extended periods of time, whereas the treatment may remain
effective for others. In cases in which the effects of NCR are not maintained for long
periods, identifying and providing multiple high-preference items may extend the
usefulness of the intervention.
EXPERIMENT 2
Two distinct patterns of results were observed during the final phase of
Experiment 1. One pattern suggested that when NCR is used to treat behaviors
maintained by automatic reinforcement, the treatment may lose its effects when
implemented for extended periods. The second pattern suggested that NCR may remain
effective over long periods without additional intervention. The purpose of Experiment 2
was to determine if either of these two patterns would be observed when NCR was used
to treat SIB maintained by automatic reinforcement. Specifically, we wanted to know if
NCR would remain effective when the treatment was used during 2-hr sessions and when
used all day. The secondary purpose was to determine if reinforcer variation would
ameliorate the effects of satiation if NCR lost its effectiveness over time.
Experiment 2 was conducted in 5 phases. First, a functional analysis was
conducted of two individuals' SIB. Second, the participants' leisure item preferences
were assessed to identify items that might compete with SIB when delivered
noncontingently. Third, the effects of delivering the most highly preferred leisure item
during brief NCR sessions were assessed. Fourth, the effects of NCR were assessed
during extended sessions. Finally, NCR was conducted at one participant's home, and
brief observations were conducted periodically to assess the long-term effects of NCR
under naturalistic conditions
33
Methods and Results
Participants and Setting
Two individuals living in a state residential facility for persons with
developmental disabilities and who engaged in SIB participated. Laura was a 43-yr-old
woman diagnosed with profound mental retardation who was nonambulatory. She
frequently engaged in head hitting. Laura did not reliably follow instructions or use any
recognizable means of communication. Robert was a 30-yr-old man diagnosed with
profound mental retardation who caused injury by rubbing his arms together forcefully.
Robert had difficulty walking and spent most of his time in a wheelchair. He followed a
few simple one-step directions and used a few gestures to communicate.
Laura's sessions during the first four phases were conducted at a day program
located on the grounds of the state residential facility, and observations during the fifth
phase were conducted at her residence. All of Robert's sessions were conducted at his
residence.
Response Measurement and Reliability
The primary dependent variables were SIB and object manipulation. Laura's SIB
was defined as forcefully striking her head with either of her hands. Robert's SIB was
defined as forcefully rubbing one arm against the other. Object manipulation was defined
as physical contact with (e.g., touching, holding) a leisure item.
Data on Laura's behavior were collected on handheld computers during
continuous 10-s intervals. Data on Robert's behavior were collected using paper and
pencil. Each data sheet had a column listing the 60 10-s intervals of a 10-min session.
34
There were two additional columns in which observers recorded frequency of SIB and
the occurrence of item manipulation for each 10-s interval. Data for both participants
were summarized as either responses per minute (SIB) or percentage of intervals during
which responding occurred (object manipulation).
Interobserver agreement was assessed by having a second observer independently
collect data during 36.9% and 25.5% of Laura's and Robert's sessions, respectively.
Observers' records were compared on an interval-by-interval basis. Agreement for data
on SIB was calculated by dividing the smaller number of responses by the larger number
of responses for each interval and averaging these values across the session. Agreement
coefficients for object manipulation were calculated by dividing the number of intervals
containing agreements by the total number of intervals and multiplying by 100%. An
interval was considered an agreement if both observers scored either the presence or
absence of behavior. Mean agreement scores were 95.2% (range, 75.7% to 100%) and
92.8% (range, 83.3% to 100%), respectively, for Laura's and Robert's SIB; and 91.7%
(range, 47.4% to 100%) and 93.7% (range, 81.7% to 100%), respectively, for Laura's and
Robert's object manipulation.
Phase 1: Functional Analysis
During Phase 1, participants were exposed to four assessment conditions (alone,
attention, demand, and play) in a multielement functional analysis based on procedures
described by Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, and Richman (1982/1994). During the
attention condition, the participant had access to leisure materials, and the experimenter
ignored the participant except to express concern each time the participant engaged in
SIB. This condition was a test for behavioral sensitivity to positive reinforcement in the
35
form of attention. During the demand condition, the experimenter initiated instructional
trials on a fixed-time (FT) 30-s schedule using a series of graduated prompts and allowed
the participant to escape the trial contingent on SIB. This condition was a test for
behavioral sensitivity to negative reinforcement in the form of escape from demands. In
the alone condition, the participant did not have access to leisure materials, and no social
consequences were placed on SIB. This condition was designed to determine whether
SIB persisted in the absence of social consequences. During the play condition, the
participant had access to leisure materials, and the experimenter delivered attention to the
participant on an FT 30-s schedule. This condition was a control for the other test
conditions.
Figure 4 shows rates (responses per min) of SIB exhibited by Laura and Robert
during the functional analysis. Laura (top panel) engaged in SIB across all conditions (M
= 5.1), but her highest rates of SIB occurred during the alone condition (M = 8.4). Robert
(bottom panel) also engaged in SIB in all conditions (M = 2.5). Although his data
contained a number of overlapping points, Robert's highest overall rates of SIB occurred
during the alone condition (M = 3.5). Laura's and Robert's SIB also persisted during the
alone sessions conducted at the conclusion of their functional analyses. These results
suggest that Laura's and Robert's SIB was maintained by automatic reinforcement.
Phase 2: Preference Assessment
The participants' preference for a number of leisure items was assessed using
procedures similar to those described by DeLeon, Iwata, Conners, and Wallace (1999).
Before the assessment, the therapist familiarized the participants with each
18 Laura
16
14
12
10
8-
6-
'4-
2-
S5 10 15 20 25
--- alone
S8- Robert
-- attention
6 0 play
-- demand
4-
2-
0- ------ ------ i -_---_.---_-_------ i
0-
5 10 15 20 25
Sessions
Figure 4: Rates of SIB for Laura and Robert across functional analysis conditions
37
leisure item. Then, the individuals were allowed access to one leisure item at a time for 4
min while an observer recorded duration of item contact (using a stopwatch) and rate of
SIB. If the participant dropped the item during the assessment, the item was retrieved
and placed within the participant's reach but was not placed in the individual's hands.
Each item was assessed on three different occasions, for a total of 12 min per item. Ten
items were assessed for each participant.
Figure 5 shows results of the preference assessment. Each leisure item is
represented by two data points: The squares show cumulative duration of item contact,
scaled on the left-Y axis; the triangles represent rates of SIB, scaled on the right-Y axis.
The points plotted are means from the three, 4-min assessment periods conducted for
each item and are organized in descending order from left to right based on mean
duration of item contact. There is an inverse relationship between object manipulation
and SIB for both participants--this is especially true of Robert's data (bottom panel).
The item labeled "C" for each participant was associated with the longest duration
of item contact and the lowest rate of SIB. This item was delivered during NCR constant
sessions. The item identified for Laura was a ribbon, which she manipulated with one
hand continuously throughout the assessment. (Her mean rate of SIB when she had the
ribbon was 0.2 responses per min.) The item selected for Robert was a bumble ball,
which he turned on and manipulated with both hands continuously throughout the
assessment. (He did not engage in SIB while he had access to the item.)
The items labeled "V" were other leisure materials that were also associated with
long durations of item contact and low rates of SIB. These items were delivered during
NCR varied sessions. The items identified for Laura were a string of beads, a plastic ring
Laura
* C t
Item Contact
A
SIB
1-A U *
VA
0 A A A A A
C V V V
Robert
A U
A
* U
- 4
2
0
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
A* 0
C V V V
Stimuli
Figure 5: Leisure item preference assessment results for Laura and Robert
39
with string, and a rubber worm. The items identified for Robert were a radio, a vibrating
switch, and a hand-held massager.
Phase 3: Brief NCR Evaluation
The effects of NCR were evaluated during 10-min sessions using multiple
baseline and reversal designs. The baseline condition was identical to the alone condition
of the functional analysis: The participant did not have access to leisure items or to social
interaction. During NCR, the individual had free access to the leisure item associated
with the longest duration of item contact and the lowest rate of SIB during the preference
assessment. At the beginning of each session, the leisure item was placed on the
participant's wheelchair tray (Laura) or on a small table within the individual's reach
(Robert). No instructions were delivered. If the participant dropped the item during the
session, the item was retrieved and placed within the participant's reach but was not
placed in the individual's hands. The therapist did not provide any other form of social
interaction during the session. At the end of the session, the participant was informed
that the session was over, and the materials were removed.
Figure 6 shows responses per min of SIB during 10-min baseline and NCR
sessions for Laura and Robert. Laura (top panel) engaged in variable but often high rates
of SIB during baseline (M = 8.3; range, 0 to 25.8). Her rate of SIB immediately
decreased when she was given access to the ribbon (M = 0.9; range, 0 to 2.7). The mean
percentage of intervals during which Laura manipulated the ribbon was 94.7% (range,
82.5% to 100%). Robert (bottom panel) engaged in somewhat more stable, moderate
rates of SIB during baseline (M = 3.3; range, 1.5 to 5.5). Robert's rate of SIB quickly
decreased when he had access to the bumble ball (M = 0.3; range, 0 to 1.0). His mean
10 20 30
Sessions
Figure 6: Rates of SIB for Laura and Robert across 10-min baseline and NCR sessions
41
level of object manipulation was 96.2% (range, 88.3% to 100%). Thus, data for both
individuals showed that continuous access to their most preferred leisure item
immediately produced large decreases in SIB.
Phase 4: Extended NCR Evaluation
The effects of NCR were evaluated during 2-hr sessions using a reversal design.
During the first condition, NCR constant, the individual had access to the most preferred
leisure item. This condition was identical to the NCR condition in Phase 3. During the
second condition, NCR varied, the individual had free access to varied leisure items.
These items were selected because they were associated with high levels of object
manipulation and low levels of SIB during the leisure item preference assessment (Phase
2). At the beginning of the NCR varied sessions, all leisure items were placed on the
participant's wheelchair tray (Laura) or on a nearby table (Robert), and the participant
was allowed to manipulate any of the items throughout the session.
Figure 7 shows rates of SIB across 120-min NCR constant and NCR varied
sessions. Each data point represents a 20-min segment; each connected series of data
points represents one, 120-min session. Laura's rate of SIB (top panel) was low at the
beginning of her first NCR constant session, but it increased as the session continued.
This effect can be seen in several other NCR constant sessions (M = 3.3; range, 0.1 to
18.3). By contrast, SIB remained low throughout the 2-hr periods when she had access to
varied leisure items (M = 0.4; range, 0 to 4.6). An inverse relationship between Laura's
levels of object manipulation and SIB was observed during some NCR constant sessions.
By contrast, her levels of object manipulation remained high throughout the NCR varied
condition. Thus, her mean level of object manipulation was lower during the NCR
20 Constant
15
10
-
Varied
Constant
Constant
Varied
Laura
Varied
Robert
5 10 15 20 25
5 10 15 20 25
20-Min Segments
Figure 7: Results of 120-min NCR sessions for Laura and Robert
v .......
43
constant sessions (M= 58.3%, range, 16.7% to 98.3%) than during the NCR varied
sessions (M = 95.2% ; range, 61.7% to 100%). According to anecdotal observations of
Laura's NCR varied sessions, Laura usually manipulated one of the leisure items (the
string of beads) to the exclusion of the other items.
Robert's NCR constant sessions (bottom panel) also show increased response
rates across time (M = 1.4; range, 0.1 to 2.8). However, when Robert had access to
multiple leisure items, he continued to engage in high rates of SIB throughout the 120-
min sessions (M = 2.3; range, 0.7 to 4.0). Robert's level of object manipulation was high
at the beginning of the NCR constant sessions but quickly dropped off as the session
progressed (M = 43.5; range, 5.0 to 100%). This pattern was not observed when he had
access to multiple items; Robert engaged in low levels of object manipulation throughout
the NCR varied sessions (M = 32.9; range, 10.0 to 76.7%).
Phase 5: Naturalistic NCR Evaluation
The effects of NCR were evaluated when the intervention was implemented all
day. Because, during the previous phase, the therapeutic effects of NCR did not endure
during 2-hr sessions for Robert, only Laura participated in this final NCR evaluation.
During baseline, Laura was observed at home during unstructured activity times.
(Typically, she did not have access to many leisure items during these periods.) Next,
Laura was given access to varied leisure items throughout the day, and data were
collected during 10-min periods when she had access to these items. Most of the
observations were conducted between 9 a.m. and 12 p.m., but data were also collected
periodically in the afternoon between 1 and 4 p.m. Observations were conducted during
both indoor and outdoor group leisure periods and while Laura was alone in her room
44
depending on where Laura was when the observer visited her home. Data were collected
three to five times per week for 5 months, and follow-up data were collected 4 and 7
months later.
Figure 8 shows Laura's rates of SIB across 10-min observation periods at her
home. Her SIB was extremely variable during baseline (M = 6.2; range, 0 to 23.6).
During NCR, when Laura had free access to varied leisure items, SIB remained generally
low, although periodic increases were observed during some sessions (M = 1.0; range, 0
to 5.6). Laura engaged in high rates of object manipulation during the NCR varied
condition (M = 93.1%; range, 70.7% to 100%). When follow-up observations were
conducted four and seven months later, Laura's rate of SIB was .5 on both occasions, and
her levels of object manipulation were 98.4% and 91.7%, respectively.
Discussion
Results from the present study indicated that reinforcers obtained through leisure
item manipulation competed with the reinforcers obtained automatically through SIB
during brief (10-min) NCR sessions. However, Laura's and Robert's SIB increased
during 120-min sessions. This may have occurred because both participants showed
satiation to the reinforcers obtained through object manipulation during the extended
sessions, as reflected by decreased levels of object manipulation.
Data from Laura's 2-hr NCR varied sessions suggested that access to multiple
reinforcers might mitigate the effects of satiation during long NCR sessions. When she
had access to multiple, highly preferred leisure items, item manipulation remained high
and SIB remained low throughout the 2-hr sessions. Laura's results followed the pattern
of results obtained with Angela in the analog NCR experiment (Experiment 1).
Laura
Baseline NCR Varied
30- 1 \ o 100
25- 80'
20- -
Item Contact 60
S15-
a -40
'10-
SIB 0
5 _20 U
00
20 40 60
Sessions
Figure 8: Rates of SIB for Laura across 10-min baseline and NCR
observation periods at her home
46
It is interesting to note that, according to anecdotal observations of Laura's NCR
varied sessions, she often manipulated the beads almost exclusively. Thus, if the beads
had been available during the NCR constant sessions, it is possible that object
manipulation may have remained high and SIB remained low throughout the sessions, as
was observed during the NCR varied sessions. (Those results would have been similar to
the pattern of results obtained with Matthew in Experiment 1.) The beads were not
available during the NCR constant sessions because the results of the leisure item
assessment suggested that the ribbon was equally preferred and was associated with
lower levels of SIB. Nonetheless, the current results and the anecdotal reports from
Laura's NCR evaluations suggest that providing multiple items may increase the chances
that at least one of the items will effectively compete with the target behavior, even if
reinforcer variation per se was not the key to extending the long-term therapeutic effects
of NCR.
Data from Laura's naturalistic NCR evaluation demonstrated that the intervention
remained effective for several months when implemented every day during unstructured
activity times. These results are promising because Laura's treatment gains were
maintained with very little effort on the caregivers' part.
The results from Robert's evaluation indicated that, although NCR was effective
during 10-min sessions, the effects were not maintained during 120-min sessions.
Providing varied leisure items to Robert seemed to have little or no effect on his
behavior. Thus, for Robert, additional interventions would be necessary to achieve long-
term reductions of SIB.
GENERAL DISCUSSION
The current experiments examined the short- versus long-term effects of NCR on
behavior problems maintained by automatic reinforcement. In the first experiment,
manipulation of two differentially preferred leisure items was studied because that
behavior was considered analogous to the response options available when NCR is used
to treat SIB maintained by automatic reinforcement. Manipulating the low-preference
item was likened to engaging in SIB, and manipulating the high-preference item was
likened to manipulating the leisure item provided noncontingently during treatment.
Results obtained during 10-min sessions indicated that, for both participants, the
reinforcer obtained through manipulation of a high-preference item competed with the
reinforcer obtained through manipulation of a low-preference item during brief sessions.
These results were consistent with numerous studies in which NCR has been evaluated
during brief sessions. Although these results were neither novel nor surprising, they were
a precondition for examining the long-term effects of NCR.
During the next phase, Matthew manipulated the high-preference item (to the
exclusion of the low-preference item) throughout the 2-hr sessions. By contrast, Angela
manipulated the high-preference item less often and manipulated the low-preference item
more often as the 2-hr sessions progressed. Matthew's data suggest that, for at least some
individuals, NCR may remain effective for long periods of time. However, the results
from Angela's evaluation suggest that NCR may lose its effectiveness when used for long
48
periods of time because the individual may become satiated to the reinforcer obtained
through item manipulation. Even in cases in which NCR loses its effectiveness over
time, Angela's data demonstrated that the effects of satiation may be ameliorated when
multiple high-preference items are available.
The discrepancy between Matthew's and Angela's results may have been caused
by the fact that the low-preference item selected for Matthew was rarely chosen during
the leisure item preference assessment, whereas the low-preference item selected for
Angela was chosen more often. Even though both participants continuously manipulated
the items when they were presented singly, the difference in the rankings of the two low-
preference items may have determined whether the participant would manipulate the
object when only one other leisure item (the high-preference item) was available during
the extended sessions.
The difference between the method used to select Matthew's and Angela's low-
preference leisure items and the discrepant outcomes that resulted may also shed light on
why NCR may be effective for some individuals who engage in SIB but not for others.
Treatment may fail, as it did for Angela, if the individual reverts back to SIB after short
periods of leisure item manipulation. This outcome may be a function of the relative
preference for SIB and manipulation of the leisure item available during NCR. NCR may
quickly lose its effectiveness when leisure item manipulation is preferred only slightly
more than SIB.
The purpose of the second experiment was to examine the long-term effects of
NCR on the SIB of two individuals, Laura and Robert. Results of functional analyses
indicated that both individuals' target behaviors were maintained by automatic
49
reinforcement. After assessments were conducted to identify leisure items that competed
with SIB, the effects of NCR were evaluated during 10-min sessions. Treatment effects
were then assessed during 2-hr sessions when the participants had access to either (a)
their most preferred leisure item, or (b) varied leisure items. Finally, the long-term
effects of implementing NCR under naturalistic conditions were assessed for Laura.
Results of the second experiment indicated that reinforcers obtained through
leisure item manipulation competed with the reinforcers obtained automatically through
SIB during brief NCR sessions. However, data from Laura's and Robert's 2-hr sessions
suggested a loss of treatment effectiveness over time, as satiation to the reinforcers
obtained through object manipulation occurred. Additional results obtained with Laura
suggested that providing varied reinforcers might mitigate the effects of satiation during
long NCR sessions. However, reinforcer variation seemed to have little or no effect on
Robert's SIB. Data collected when NCR was implemented during Laura's daily
unstructured activity times demonstrated that the procedure remained effective over
several months.
The difference between Laura's and Robert's results during the varied NCR
condition was unexpected. NCR had similar effects during the brief NCR evaluation and
during the extended NCR constant sessions, and similar results were expected during the
NCR varied condition. The discrepancy was also unexpected because both participants
had a limited repertoire of leisure skills. Laura and Robert manipulated all of their
preferred items in a consistent manner: Laura twirled preferred items in the air, and
Robert held vibrating items against his head and chest. The only item Robert
manipulated that did not noticeably vibrate was the radio. However, Robert turned up the
50
volume and placed the radio against his ear, producing a mild form of vibration against
his head and eardrum. Thus, both participants seemed to produce similar sensory
consequences regardless of which preferred leisure item was available. Despite these
similarities between Laura's and Robert's behavior, providing varied leisure items during
extended NCR sessions had different effects. This discrepancy highlights the importance
of evaluating the short- and long-term effects of a treatment for each individual for whom
the intervention will be implemented.
The results from the current experiments are relevant to previous findings in a
number of ways. First, decreases in the target behavior were observed when leisure items
were available during 10-min sessions. This finding replicates those from many other
studies in which NCR has been shown to be effective during brief sessions (Bailey &
Meyerson, 1970; Favell et al., 1982; Goh et al., 1995; Lockwood & Bourland, 1982;
Piazza et al., 1998; Roscoe et al., 1998; Shore et al., 1997; Vollmer et al., 1994).
The results of Robert's and Laura's leisure item preference assessments were
consistent with research demonstrating that NCR is more effective when preferred leisure
items are delivered noncontingently than when nonpreferred items are used (Vollmer et
al., 1994). Because the purpose of the current study was not to demonstrate the
difference between the effects of delivering preferred versus nonpreferred stimuli on self-
injury, nonpreferred items were not delivered during the 10-min NCR sessions in the
current experiment. Nonetheless, data from the brief leisure item probes conducted
during Experiment 2 indicated that there was an inverse relationship between leisure item
preference (as measured by duration of item contact) and SIB.
51
The leisure item assessment results were somewhat inconsistent with research
suggesting that it may be beneficial to present stimuli that appear to provide stimulation
similar to that obtained through the target behavior (Favell et al., 1982; Goh et al., 1995;
Lockwood & Bourland, 1982; Piazza et al., 1998; Shore et al., 1997). The leisure items
associated with the longest duration of item contact and lowest level of SIB in
Experiment 2 did not appear to produce sensory stimulation similar to that obtained by
engaging in SIB. The most preferred and effective leisure items identified for Laura were
objects that could be twirled in the air by holding on to one end and rapidly rotating her
wrist. The stimulation produced by twirling these items did not appear to match the
stimulation Laura produced by hitting her head. The items associated with high duration
of item contact and low levels of SIB for Robert were items that vibrated. He held these
items against his face, head, and chest. The stimulation he produced when he
manipulated these items had no apparent similarity to the stimulation he produced by
forcefully rubbing his arms together.
Laura's and Robert's preference for stimuli that did not produce stimulation that
matched that produced by SIB was surprising in light of previous research. For example,
Piazza et al. (1998) conducted a preference assessment to determine whether stimuli that
produced oral stimulation (matched stimuli) were preferred over stimuli that produced
other forms of stimulation (non-matched stimuli) by three individuals who engaged in
pica. All three participants preferred matched stimuli, and noncontingent access to
matched stimuli was associated with lower levels of pica than access to non-matched
stimuli.
52
The benefit of delivering stimuli that produced consequences similar to those
produced by the target behavior may not have been observed in the current study because
stimuli that met this criterion were not included in the leisure item assessment. Items
were selected for the assessment because they were either reported to be preferred by the
participants or because they produced a variety of sensory consequences. Items were not
selected because they appeared to produce similar sensory consequences to those
produced by the target behavior. Thus, if different criteria were used to select leisure
items for the initial assessment, we may have found that the stimuli associated with high
levels of contact and low levels of SIB did produce sensory consequences similar to those
produced by SIB.
The results from Angela's (Exp 1) and Laura's (Exp 2) extended NCR sessions
were consistent with research demonstrating that stimulus variation may improve the
effectiveness of reinforcement. During Angela's extended NCR constant condition, she
manipulated the high-preference item less and manipulated the medium-preference item
more as the session progressed. During Laura's extended NCR castant condition, she
manipulated the leisure item less and engaged in SIB more toward the end of the 2-hr
sessions. These results were not observed for either participant during the extended NCR
varied condition when varied high-preference leisure items were available: Both
participants manipulated the high-preference items throughout the 2-hr sessions. These
results are similar to results obtained by Egel (1981), who found that correct responding
and on-task behavior showed declining trends within sessions when the same reinforcer
was consistently presented to three participants. By contrast, stable levels of correct
53
responding and on-task behavior were observed in all three participants when varied
reinforcers were presented.
Angela's and Laura's data from the extended NCR evaluation and Laura's data
from the naturalistic NCR evaluation are also consistent with results demonstrating that
NCR, when used as part of a treatment package, can be effective during extended periods
and under naturalistic conditions (Vollmer et al., 1994). Vollmner et al. trained the
families of two participants to implement treatment packages that included an NCR
procedure for one hour per day. Data were collected periodically to evaluate the
effectiveness of the intervention package under these naturalistic conditions, and results
indicated that the intervention was effective for both participants. Similar results were
obtained in the current investigation when Angela and Laura participated in 2-hr NCR
sessions, and when Laura's caregivers were trained to implement NCR at her home
during daily unstructured time periods.
The results from Robert's extended NCR sessions indicated that NCR was
ineffective as an intervention when implemented without additional treatments. This
finding is consistent with results obtained by Vollmer et al. (1994). After implementing
NCR to decrease three participants' hand mouthing, the experimenters reinforced the
object manipulation of two participants to obtain further decreases in SIB. A manual
restraint procedure was also necessary to decrease one of the participant's SIB to
therapeutic levels.
The current results are also relevant to previous research conducted on reinforcer
substitutability. Substitutable reinforcers have been defined as stimuli "for which an
increase in consumption of one alternative results in decreased consumption of its
54
substitute" (Shore et al., 1997, p. 23) Shore et al. conducted probes to identify leisure
items that appeared to produce reinforcers substitutable with SIB that was maintained by
automatic reinforcement. Items that were associated with the highest levels of item
manipulation and lowest levels of SIB were considered substitutable with SIB. A similar
method was used in Experiment 2 of the current investigation to identify leisure items to
be delivered during NCR. During the brief NCR evaluation, the reinforcers obtained
through manipulating high-preference leisure items appeared to be substitutable with the
reinforcers obtained through engaging in SIB. However, these effects were not
maintained during extended NCR sessions.
The results of the extended NCR constant condition suggest a need to investigate
and perhaps define substitutability more clearly. It may be useful to investigate what
effects altering the establishing operation of one reinforcer have on the establishing
operation of the other. For example, when two responses that produce different
reinforcers are available concurrently, an individual may engage in one response more
than the other. However, once the individual becomes satiated to the reinforcer
maintaining the first behavior, the second behavior may increase. Even though
consumption of one reinforcer initially resulted in decreased consumption of the other,
this pattern of behavior would suggest that the two reinforcers maintaining the behaviors
were independent. If the two reinforcers were truly substitutable, it seems that satiation
to one reinforcer would produce satiation to the second reinforcer, as evidenced by
temporary decreases in both behaviors after an extended time in which the individual
emitted the first response.
55
According to these criteria for considering two reinforcers substitutable, the
reinforcer Laura and Robert obtained by manipulating their most preferred leisure item
competed with the reinforcer maintaining SIB, but the two reinforcers were not
substitutable. Likewise, the reinforcers Angela obtained by manipulating her low- and
high-preference leisure items did not appear to be substitutable. The relationship
between the reinforcers obtained by Matthew is unclear because he never appeared to
satiate to the high-preference leisure item.
The current study contained a few noteworthy limitations. First, data were not
collected to identify which leisure items were being manipulated during the extended
varied NCR sessions. According to anecdotal reports, Laura manipulated the beads to the
exclusion of the other leisure items during this condition. Collecting data would have
aided in determining the function providing varied items had on her SIB. Stimulus
variation may have decreased the likelihood that Laura would satiate to any one
reinforcer. On the other hand, providing varied items may have merely enabled her to
select the one item to which she would not quickly satiate. In either case, stimulus
variation effectively extended the treatment utility of NCR during 2-hr sessions and when
implemented under naturalistic conditions over several months.
Second, no additional interventions were attempted for Robert. Due to parental
and staff concerns regarding Robert's health, he was referred only for participation in the
current investigation. Evaluation of other treatments was considered beyond the scope of
the current investigation. Nonetheless, evaluating interventions designed to increase the
variety of Robert's leisure skills and to decrease his SIB would have been advisable.
56
Despite these limitations, this study highlights the importance of evaluating
interventions under naturalistic conditions as well as under more tightly-controlled
conditions. Initial treatment evaluations and refinements need to be conducted under
well-controlled conditions. However, treatments should eventually be tested under
conditions similar to those in which the treatment will be used because different results
may be obtained when a treatment is evaluated under naturalistic conditions than under
more limited conditions. Investigators should examine treatment generality and identify
procedures by which generality can be achieved.
Future research should also concentrate on increasing leisure skills among
individuals for whom NCR is ineffective. NCR fails to reduce problem behaviors
maintained by automatic reinforcement during even brief sessions in individuals who do
not have adequate leisure skills. Improving leisure skills may also prove beneficial for
individuals who engage in a limited repertoire of leisure item manipulation and for whom
NCR is only effective during brief sessions. Providing varied stimuli during NCR to
extend the therapeutic effects of the intervention is more likely to be effective for
individuals who manipulate a variety of leisure items.
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Jana Lindberg received a Bachelor of Arts degree from Brigham Young
University in 1995. Her major was an interdisciplinary program with a combined focus
in organizational behavior, communications, and psychology. Jana's interest in applied
behavior analysis began when she took an introductory course in the field as an
undergraduate student.
In the Fall of 1995, Jana began graduate studies in experimental and applied
behavior analysis at the University of Florida. Her studies have included both theoretical
and applied behavior analysis courses. She has specialized in the assessment and
treatment of severe behavior and learning disorders.
During Jana's five years of graduate school, she has worked as a research
assistant under the direction of Dr. Brian Iwata at the Florida Center on Self-Injury. In
this capacity, she has conducted assessment and treatment sessions, analyzed data, trained
staff, served as the lab coordinator, supervised research, and disseminated results through
publishing articles and giving conference presentations. In addition, she has worked as a
teaching assistant and instructor at the University of Florida.
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to
acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality,
as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
Brian A. Iwata, Chairran
Professor of Psychology
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to
acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality,
as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. J i
Marc N. Branch
Professor of Psychology
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to
acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality,
as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
Shari Ellis
Assistant Professor of Psychology
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to
acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality,
as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
Timothy R. Vollmer
Assistant Professor of Psychology
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to
acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality,
as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
Jennfer Asmus
Assistant Professor of Educational
Psychology
This dissertation was submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Department of
Psychology in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences and to the Graduate School and
was accepted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy.
May 2000
Dean, Graduate School
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
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