|
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HERZBERG'S
MOTIVATOR/HYGIENE THEORY AND WORK BEHAVIOR TYPES
OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS IN FLORIDA
BY
CAROL RITZEN KEM
A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN
PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Copyright 1994
Carol Ritzen Kem
Dedicated to
my mother,
Thelma
Summers
Ritzen
and
to the memory of my father,
Franklin
Wheeler
Ritzen
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The
development
work
from
an assortment
ideas
to a
completed project represents the collaborative efforts of several
deep and most sincere thanks are extended to Dr.
people.
John Nickens, chairman of
supervisory
committee.
will
never
forget
willingness
to take
chance on a stranger.
He was instrumental in helping me focus my ideas and
shape
project,
prodding me
to keep
providing
encouragement
working when
progress
when
was
slow.
needed
a lift
been
advocate for me and
the project,
a source of unrelenting
support,
empathetic mentor.
doctoral advisor.
Dr. Nickens exemplifies to me the best qualities of a true
James
Hensel,
David
Honeyman,
and
Tom
Fillmer
supervisory committee members, have provided advice and expertise critical
to the successful completion of this work.
I both acknowledge their assistance
and thank them for it.
I am also grateful to Dr.
Gordon Lawrence
who first
sparked my interest in
"people types."
John
Dixon,
CIRCA,
provided
invaluable
recommendations
concerning methods of data analysis appropriate for the study.
Brent Coule,
who was initially contacted to provide computer analysis assistance, did that
and more.
He became a friend, developed a personal interest in the project,
and patiently discussed s
statistics with me over a period of several months.
manner
and
professional
expertise,
both
vital
to the
completion
manuscript.
Paula Chain Gebhardt used her exemplary talents to assist me in
the presentation of a professionally edited manuscript.
I am grateful to all the friends and colleagues who encouraged me as I
worked
toward
the completion of the study.
particular
thank Pamela
Pasak Sawallis and
Dolores
Jenkins for
their
steadfast
support
caring
friendship.
Finally
express my
deepest gratitude to my
husband
sons, Reade and Eric.
They
knew I
could and would successfully
complete
this project and
were unwavering in their
love and support throughout the
past several years.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS..............................................................................................1v
LIST OF TABLES.........................................................................................................viii
LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................................x
ABSTRA
CHAPTER
Background and Rational
e..........
Statement of the Research Problem........
Delimitations and Limitations ...............
Justification for the Study .......................
Definition of Terms....................................
General Term s .............................
Marcus Paul Placement Profile
Terms
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire Terms......
Organization of the Study.................................................
O organization of the Chapter................................... ...............
Job Satisfaction......................... ..............................................
Definition ........................................................................
H historical O overview ........................................................
Herzberg'
Two-Factor
Theory of Job Satisfaction..
Measuring Job Satisfaction
Work Behavior
Type.................
CT.....................................................................................................................xi
r'lu
IN TRO DUCTION .... .......................... ....... .......... .......................................... 1
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .................................................13
Definition ............................
Job Satisfaction of Academic Librarians..................................
Studies Related to Maslow and Herzberg................................
Studies Using the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire.
C on clu sion ............................................................................................
Summary....
Organization of the Chapter.......................
Statement of the Research Problem...........
Population...
Procedures...
Data Collection .........
Instrumentation...........
Marcus Paul Placement Profile......
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire......................................
Statistical Procedures...................................................................
Summary of Design and Methodology............................................
RESULTS AND
Description of the Sample Population..
Research Questions .................................
Summary of Results and Analysis..........
SUMMARY
, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS .......................93
Research Problem and Procedures
Research Questions .... ......................
Research Question One..........
Research Question Two...........
Research Question
Three
Research Question Four..
Implications..
Work
Behavior
Type........
Job Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction.
Recommendations for
Further Research
A 1 _.* e a #"__-* n oif
........50
.. .. .56
...... .63
...... .67
.......68
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY.. .................................. ......... ................... ........53
. .
ANALYSIS OF DATA ................................ ......... ..........69
A PPEN DIC ES................................................................................................................108
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1
2
3
4
Page
Response to Survey.... .......... .... .... .................... .......... ...... ....................... .. 71
Characteristics of the Participating Academic Librarians.................. 73
Work Behavior Type by Gender.............................................................74
Mean Score and Standard Deviation by Item,
MSQ Short Form.................
Mean Score and Standard Deviation for Intrinsic, Extrinsic,
and Total Scores, MSQ Short Form ..
............ 78
Factor Loading on Job Satisfaction Items,
MSQ Short Form...
... ... .... ................ .. .......... .............. 80
Simple Correlations Between MSQ Items and
Work Behavior Types................
f .** .*.. .....*. **. .*.*******t 83
Correlation Between the Three Factors on the MSQ and
Work
Behavior
Type...
...... .......... ..................83
Within-set Correlations among the Original Variables............ ........84
Canonical Correlations of Factors and
Work Behavior
Types...
First Canonical Correlational Analysis:
Canonical Coefficients.
First Canonical Correlational Analysis:
a ~ i eL--s t a
Or
..... .... .......... .... .. ........ ...... .... ...77
..................................................................85
.......................................................884
Second Canonical Correlational Analysis:
Canonical Coefficients ...............
Second Canonical Correlational Analysis:
Canonical Structure ..... .. .. ...... ..... ...... .. .... ... .... ......... ... .... .......... ..".....-..9 1
.............................................................89
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Maslow'
Bockman'
Herzberg's
Traditional Model of Job Satisfaction .............................. 19
Two-Factor Attitude Model.............................................20
Two-Axis Model..................................................................... 32
Marston's
Marston's Behavioral Description of the Four
Primary Emotions.......
Geier'
....... .. ........t.. ....o........... 36
Revised List of Traits Which Correspond
to the Four Primary Emotions.
Marcus Paul Placement Profile List of Traits........... .................. .........38
Illustration of a Marcus Paul Placement Profile "Box"
Sample MPPP Profile ....... ... ....... .......... ................................................59
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire Scales......................................65
. ......................... ... .. .......37
Page
Hierarchy of Needs ..................................... ..... ............................... 18
..................... 58
Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School
of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HERZBERG'S
MOTIVATOR/HYGIENE THEORY AND WORK BEHAVIOR TYPES
ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS IN FLORIDA
By
Carol Ritzen Kem
December
1994
Chairman:
John M.
Nickens
Major Department: Educational Leadership
The problem this study investigated was to relate the Herzberg theory
that job satisfaction and
job dissatisfaction are
affected
by motivators and
hygienes to the theory derived from Nickens and Bauch that motivators and
hygienes are perceived differently by different work behavior types.
specific
questions
were
as follows:
What
are the
academic
librarians work behavior types as measured by the Marcus Paul Placement
Profile
(MPPP)?
What
are the
motivators
hygienes
perceived
academic librarians as reported on the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
MPPP, relate differently to the motivator and hygiene scores derived from the
MSQ
A group of 350 potential subjects was identified through
in one or more appropriate professional organizations.
membership
The MPPP and the
MSQ were administered
to determine work
behavior type and
to measure
intrinsic, extrinsic, and total job satisfaction.
The potential subjects
were mailed MSQ,
MPPP
, and supplementary
demographic forms along with an explanatory
cover letter.
The letter sent
with the instruments promised the participants the results of their individual
MPPP type analyses,
if they indicated that they wished
to receive them.
summary
of study results
was also offered
to participants.
total of 202
subjects provided usable response sets.
types,
Participants
a finding
were
consi
unevenly
stent
with
divided
most
among
previous
four
studies.
work
behavior
Concentrators
predominated,
followed
producers,
with
inducers
and
energizers
accounting for fewer than 10 percent each of the total sample.
general,
participants
were
satisfied
with
their
jobs
although
differences
between
groups were apparent.
strong relationship between
intrinsic,
or job
content,
scores
was
found
concentrators.
weak
moderate relationship
between some individual MSQ items
producers
was found.
Implications for academic librarians include the use of work behavior
type and factors in job satisfaction or job dissatisfaction for recruitment to the
profession,
placement,
J
development
training,
academic
library
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
For the majority of adults in the United States today,
factor and defining characteristic of life.
work is a central
More than at any other period in our
history,
paid employment fills a large portion of time for
both
women and
men.
Accordingly, it is even more important to realize that:
In order that people may
things are needed: They m
much of it.
be happy in t
iust be fit for it.
heir work,
these three
They must not do too
And they must have a sense of success in it.
(Ruskin,
1851)
Two of the three things Ruskin set forth as necessary for happiness in one's
work
are major
elements
study-namely,
work
behavior
type,
"fit,"-and job satisfaction, or "sense of success."
Background and Rationale
Research into work behavior and job satisfaction has been conducted
since the early years of the twentieth century when industrial psychologists
such as
Frederick
Taylor (1911) began to show an interest in job satisfaction
studies.
Although
Taylor'
major research interest was
using
time
motion studies
to increase productivity
he did mention
the importance of
human factors in completing tasks (Wellstood,
1984/1985).
About 20 years
1 a --- Tr1 a __ l 1 -. I t 1 1 .
2
/
theory based upon an ascending hierarchy of human needs, beginning with
the lowest order, basic physiological need, and extending through the highest
level,
self-actualization.
Although
lower-order
needs
had
to be
satisfied
before higher-order needs began to assume any importance, when a need was
met, it no longer served
as a motivating force (Maslow
1943).
Maslow'
work
was
a foundation
Herzberg
(1966
Herzberg,
Mausner,
Snyderman,
1959)
who
developed
a two-factor
theory
of job
satisfaction
(Glenn, 1982/1983
Wellstood,
1984/1985).
Two types of work
variables, the motivators and hygiene factors,
were theorized to influence job
satisfaction and job dissatisfaction.
Motivators
, which included achievement,
recognition,
advancement, responsibility, and interest in the work itself were
classed as satisfiers as they exerted a positive effect on workers'
output.
motivators corresponded
to the higher-order needs
in Maslow'
ascending
hierarchy of needs.
Analogous
to Maslow'
lower-order needs
, hygiene factors included
pay, security
supervision and physical working conditions.
The absence of
these factors was limited to job dissatisfaction.
It is critical to recognize that
Herzberg et al.
(1959) emphasized
that the presence of a particular hygiene
factor
necessarily
lead
to job
satisfaction
that
lack
motivator
automatically
create
dissatisfaction.
That
"the
opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction, it is an absence of job
satisfaction.
Conversely
opposite
dissatisfaction
is not
satisfaction, it is an absence of job dissatisfaction"
Since the first publication of Herzberg'
(Olson, 1988/1990, p.
theory, hundreds of
32).
studies
aspects
Herzberg'
theory
among
various
groups
including
academic
administrators.
Additional studies (Glenn,
1982/1983; Wellstood,
1984/1985;
Olson, 1988/1990; Poston, 1988/1989; Barber, 1989/1990) added the application
Marcus
Paul
Placement
Profile
(MPPP)
their
studies
medical
technologists,
officers, faculty
vocational
and deans in
educational
admini
strators,
colleges of nursing and
college
placement
cooperative-extension
service mid-level managers.
Three studies (Plate & Stone,
1974
Dahlstrom,
1982; Hamshari,
1985/1986) investigated aspects of the theory in relation to
professional librarians.
Plate and
Stone used the Herzberg "critical incidence
technique"
(Herzberg,
1966)
in an analysis
incidents.
The
study
population
motivational
included
workshops
American
held
Canadian
conjunction
with
librarians
professional
attending
meetings.
They concluded that the theory applied with as much force to librarianship as
to other
occupations
studied.
Hamshari
compared
job satisfaction of
professional librarians in the technical and public service departments in 20
academic
libraries
Jordan.
Dahlstrom
investigated
motivation
participating in continuing education.
He administered a questionnaire to a
random sample of 550 librarians throughout the southwestern
United States
and identified 20 factors that were classed as motivators for participating in
continuing
education.
The
seven
items
that
were
shown
to be
most
significant were identified as Herzberg motivators.
The theory of work behavior types suggests that basic differences in
personality traits may have an impact upon
work behaviors.
Investigators
from
Wundt in the 1890s to Nickens in the
1980s have added to the body of
Marston'
work and
the research of Nickens (1984) and Bauch
(1981)
led to the development of the Marcus Paul Placement Profile (MPPP).
designed
A tool
to determine work behavior type in order to facilitate correct job
placement,
environment
(Holland,
the MPPP is intended for use in
ts. Different personality types e
1959).
both educational and business
!xcel at different types of work
If this construct is accepted, then a successful matching of
jobs and personnel can be expected to increase satisfaction in the worker, lead
to greater
productivity
more
adequately
needs
both
organization and the individual (Nickens, 1984).
Previous
studies have investigated the personal characteristics and the
personality
type
professional
librarians
(Bryan,
1952;
Douglass,
1958;
Morrison,
1961
Clift, 1976; Agada, 1984/1985; David,
1990/1991).
Numerous
studies
have
investigated
aspects
of job
satisfaction among
librarians
example, D'Elia, 1975
Chwe, 1976; Miniter, 1975/1976; Rockman, 1985/1986).
However
no research
studies
were
found
that
specifically
related
satisfaction and work behavior types among librarians, particularly librarians
employed
behavior
institutions of higher
types
academic
education.
librarians
Thus,
a study
potential
work
to add
a new
dimension to knowledge in the area of work behavior and job satisfaction as
well as in the area of characteristics of academic librarians.
Statement of the Research Problem
The problem this
tudy investigated was to relate the Herzberg theory
that iob satisfaction and
dissatisfactinn arp
a ffprtpd
hv mntivatnrc and
. .
5
What are the work behavior types of academic librarians in Florida
as measured by the Marcus Paul Placement Profile (MPPP)?
What
are the
librarians
motivators
Florida
hygienes
as reported
on the
perceived 1
Minnesota
y academic
Satisfaction
Questionnaire (MSQ)?
factors
derived
from
factor
analysis
MSQ
show
characteristics of motivators and hygienes?
Do the different work behavior type scores of academic librarians in
Florida,
measured
MPPP,
relate
differently
motivator and hygiene scores derived from the MSQ?
Delimitations and
Limitations
In answering the preceding questions,
the following delimitations were
observed:
The
tudy
was
limited
librarians
currently
employed
professional positions in post-secondary institutions in Florida.
The study was limited to librarians holding the Master of Science in
Library Science (MLS) or an appropriate equivalent academic degree.
tudy was
limited
to librarians
with membership
in one or
more of the following professional organizations:
the Association
College
and
Research
Libraries,
American
Library
Association, or the Florida Library
Association.
Information
about
work
behavior
type
was
limited
that
measured by the Marcus Paul Placement Profile.
Information
regarding
satisfaction
satisfaction
was
limited
to those
facets
measured
short-form
Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire.
In addition, the following limitations were inherent in this study:
6
Since this study was limited to academic librarians, it is not possible
generalize
these
findings
other
librarian
other
occupational types.
Justification for the Study
According
to Moran
(1989),
in a paper
tracing
development of
academic libraries from 1939-1989,
academic
sufficient
libraries
have
institutions
evolved
large,
from
relatively
multifaceted
small,
organizations
electronically
interconnected
envisioned fifty years
ago.
and
linked
The librarians who
'I
ways not
work in t
:hese
institutions
. are called upon to have knowledge of processes
and to provide services unforeseen in 1939.
However,
demands
as the
upon librarians,
profession
particularly
librarianship
matured
those in academic institutions,
have
become more complicated, requiring higher levels of education and training,
15 professional schools of library science have closed since 1978 (Paris,
and the number of new entrants to the profession is declining.
1990)
With only 52
institutions
now
offering
graduate
training
library
science
and/or
information science and a number of states and large metropolitan areas with
no library
schools
it is
logistically more
difficult in
United
States
become a librarian than a lawyer (there are 180 law schools) or a physician, as
students can select from
142 medical
schools
(Manley,
1991).
Some in
profession believe these negative factors can be balanced in part by the more
diverse backgrounds of those individuals who do enter the profession and by
advanced
level
educational
niatta m en t
xe hibited
at least
-- -- -
7
which the modal entrant is a white female in her mid-thirties who majored
in English, education or history" (p. 102).
The basic studies on the personality of the librarian date back to the
period from
1952 to
1961.
Only one substantive study has been completed
within
years
(David,
1990/1991).
Although
studies
satisfaction among librarians abound, some are of negligible value because of
simplistic
statistical
analyses,
poorly
designed
research
methods
questionable population samples.
Research into the work behavior type of
librarians is generally only addressed as a minor factor in studies designed for
other purposes.
Of particular interest to the proposed study is the finding reported by
Lynch and
Verdin
(1983)
that
"new entrants
. into
the profession report
some
lowest
levels
satisfaction"
445).
They
find
troublesome
suggest
several
possible
explanations
finding,
including problems of accommodation
to working within an organizational
context,
difficulty with
work-flow
demands,
the nature of
"entry-
level work for professionals in large research libraries [which] may be more
routine and non-professional than librarians expect" (p.
446).
Studies of
announcements
academic library
positions
reveal
increasingly
stringent
educational
requirements
including
advanced
academic degrees, subject specialization and language capability (Creth, 1989).
According to Moore (1981),
a glut in subject Ph.D.
's and master'
degrees led
many academic libraries to add either a requirement or a preference for these
degrees
to job
descriptions
reasoning
that
, given
market
, they
^ / V J~
could
[job]
profession
may
expect
that
their
advanced
academic
credentials
subject specialization
will
translate into
more
professional
responsibilities
lack of
a match
between
expectation and
reality may
lead
to job
dissatisfaction or, in extreme cases, to highly trained individuals prematurely
leaving the profession.
Reporting on a study of librarians
10 years after their
graduation,
White (1990) wrote:
"The graduates
report that
... they
thought they knew what their preference for both type of library and type of
work was before they enrolled in library
school.
By the time they graduated, a
significant percentage had changed their minds"
(p. 61).
More importantly,
White continues
"almost
half
. end
doing something
different from
what they
specialized
originally
preparation,
thought
recent
they would
graduates
ibidd).
appeared
Further,
to be selected
terms of
for first
professional positions almost casually,
with employers later complaining that
new hires did not possess sufficient specialized skills (White and Mott, 1990).
Given the ever increasing costs of recruitment and training, it would seem to
be in
best interest of
academic
libraries
to attempt to determine what
aspects of work will provide satisfaction for librarians or, at a minimum, at
least to avoid those aspects that cause dissatisfaction.
According to Geier (1979),
people in
working situations
exhibit
specific qualities and patterns of behaviors.
If individuals are provided with
information about their particular work behavior styles and are placed into
jobs
that
require
encourage
those
styles,
opportunity
satisfaction and success in employment will be increased.
In addition, the
possibility that an employee may become frustrated and leave a specific job or
academic libraries it
appeared
that a study
combining the theory
of work
behavior type and the theory of job satisfaction would be of great potential
value
to the
profession.
Such
a study
been
conducted
among
librarians in general or among academic librarians in particular.
Research in
area
could
use
recruitment
profession
assignment of responsibilities
to positions in
the profession.
Further
tudy may add
to current knowledge of work behavior type by studying a
population that has not previously been studied in this manner.
Definition of Terms
General
Terms
Academic
librarian
refers
a professional
librarian
currently
employed in an academic library in Florida.
Academic
library refers to the library of a post-secondary institution
(community or junior college, college or university) in Florida.
American
Library
Association is the major professional organization
for librarians in the United States.
Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) is a division of
American
Library
Association
with
approximately
11,000
members
nationwide.
Factors refers to any of the six motivators or eight hygienes descriptive
those
facets
which
dissatisfaction (Herzberg et al.,
may
1959).
contribute
satisfaction
or job
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include, for example, company policies,
working conditions, supervision and
administration and co-worker relationships.
content
refers
to factors
such
as achievement,
advancement,
recognition, responsibility and the work itself.
When present in a job,
they
are related to job satisfaction.
context refers
to factors
such as
pay, security, supervision, and
physical working conditions which, when absent from a job, are linked to job
dissatisfaction.
Tob dissatisfaction refers to feelings associated with
"the built-in drive
to avoid
pain
from
environment,
plus
learned
drives
which
become conditioned to the basic biological needs"
(Herzberg, 1966, p. 28).
Tob satisfaction is the positive effect derived from those factors which
most often contribute to higher needs (Herzberg et al., 1959).
Motivators refers to factors which contribute to employee satisfaction
and are related to the job content portion of work.
achievement, responsibility and recognition.
They include, for example,
Professional
librarian
refers
an individual
holding
master
degree in library science from a program accredited by the American Library
Association.
That
"the
master
degree
is the
minimum
educational
requirement for employment in a professional program"
(Robbins,
1990, p.
Marcus Paul Placement Profile
Terms
Marcus Paul Placement Profile (MPPP) is an instrument developed by
1
Energizer type (result oriented),
1
a work behavior type which describes
an individual
who
typically
assertive,
direct,
impatient
with
detail,
interested in getting results and quite creative in the work situation.
Inducer type
(veople-oriented),
a work behavior type which indicates
an individual who is sensitive and optimistic and who places more emphasis
on interpersonal relations and getting things accomplished within the group
rather than on the organization itself.
Concentrator
tvvpe (technically
oriented),
a work behavior type which
indicates an individual who is a loyal,
patient, systematic, and effective.
Producer type (quality oriented),
steady worker and who tends to be
a work behavior type which indicates
an individual
who
strives
quality,
follows
guidelines
carefully
supports his/her work and decisions with documentation.
Work
behavior
refers
a description
categorizing
individual'
general qualities and predisposing behavior traits as they relate
to the work situation and are defined by the Marcus Paul Placement Profile.
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
Terms
lob satisfaction
score refers to a participant'
score on the Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire.
The short-form MSQ yields the following three
scores, extrinsic, intrinsic and general.
Extrinsic
Scale
context
score
short-form
MSQ
determined
by summing
the individual scores of 6 of the 20 items on
measure.
type
General
Satisfaction
Scale
is a score
determined
summing
individual scores on all 20 of the items on the short-form MSQ.
Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire (MSO),
or the short-form MSQ,
a 20-item
measure
consisting
statements
about
various
aspects
person
's job
which
an individual
asked
to rate on
a 5-point scale with
responses
ranging from
"not satisfied"
through
"extremely satisfied."
scales utilize descriptors derived from the work of Herzberg.
Organization of the Studv
The remainder of the study is organized into four chapters.
A review
literature
presented
Chapter
Included
are major
areas of
research
and
related
literature
relevant
satisfaction
and
dissatisfaction, and
the development
of the
theory
of work
behavior type.
The chapter concludes with a review of the literature on these topics as they
relate to academic librarians.
The design and methodology of the study are presented in Chapter HIII.
Research design, population, data collection,
instrumentation and procedures
are addressed.
Chapter IV
contains the results and analysis of the data collected from
the Marcus Paul Placement Profile, the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
and the demographic and career information questions.
The data specific to
each question presented in the study are addressed and discussed.
Chapter
includes a
summary
the study,
conclusions
about the
findings. and recommendations for additional rpsparrh
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Organization of the Chapter
This review covers three areas.
of research on job satisfaction. The s
The first section presents an overview
secondd section reviews the research and
theories leading to the development of work behavior types and the Marcus
Paul Placement Profile.
The final section provides a synthesis of the research
satisfaction,
personality
type
work
behavior
and
career
development as related to academic librarians.
Tob Satisfaction
Definition
According
to Chwe
(1976),
more
than
5,000
articles,
books,
and
dissertations were written on the subject of job satisfaction from the 1930s to
the mid-1970s.
the effective management of human resources is one of
the most important tasks for any organization, it is not surprising to find such
a large and varied volume of research focused on this subject.
If the activities
employees
are to contribute
to the
realization
organizational
goals,
successful
management,
including
direction
motivation,
important.
Thus,
research
on employees
variety
work
situations
been
A .1 .. ,.. : c 4 La...: nt an -
/-'/^Tt/"I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ An C1 Yt t(/^- fW ^ W ^.~-f ~^^-
14
job satisfaction is the pleasurable emotional state resulting from
the appraisal
achievement of
one
one
's job
as achieving
values, and
facilitating
job dissatisfaction is
unpleasurable emotional
state
resulting from
appraisal
one's job values or as entailing disvalues.
316)
Most
researchers
determine
their
own
operational
definition
(Gruneberg, 1979).
For example, Wanous and Lawler (1972) list nine different
operational
satisfaction
definitions
including
each
need
related
fulfillment,
a different
equity
theoretical
and
work
basis of
values
while
Bockman (1971) described the traditional theory of job satisfaction as being the
total body of feeling an individual has about his or her job.
Porter and Steers
(1973)
defined
satisfaction
as the
"sum
total
an individual'
expectations
on the
job"
167)
while
Smith
Kendall
, and
Hulin
(1969)
defined
concept
as "feeling
or affective
responses
to facets
situation
According to O'Reilly and Roberts (1975),
individual traits
referred
to as
"personality"
are obvious antecedents
to job satisfaction.
particularly relevant definition for this study
that of Davis (1977) because he
related
the degree of job
satisfaction
to the fit between an employee and a
particular job.
Davis
tated that
satisfaction
favorableness
which employees view their work.
or unfavorableness
with
It results when there is a fit
between
characteristics
wants
employees.
expresses the amount of congruence between one'
of the job and the rewards that the job provides.
expectation
(p. 74)
It is
important
to distinguish
term
satisfaction
from
morale.
satisfaction is an individual state of mind and refers
to the response of an
individual
to the job
whereas morale is
the feeling of
commitment to and
satisfaction
and
those
that
determine
motivation
different;
thus,
"satisfaction reflects an employee'
attitude toward the job while motivation
refers to a drive to perform" (Glenn, 1982/1983, p.
Historical Overview
Interest in job satisfaction and
phenomenon.
the quality of work life is not a recent
Davis (1971) asserted concern with job satisfaction was evident
in industry over 1
years ago.
Initially, psychologists studied job satisfaction
as a factor in increasing the productivity of workers.
Frederick
Taylor (1911)
introduced
principles
scientific
management
to work
settings
applying
results
compartmentalized
time
work
tasks
motion
an effort
studies.
increase
simplified
efficiency
and,
correspondingly, the productivity of workers.
Taylor also called attention to
the importance of the human element as a factor in job success.
According to
Nauratil (1989),
"Taylorism,"
or scientific management,
was widely accepted
libraries
early
years
20th
century.
The
philosophy
was
advocated by
Melvil Dewey who even urged librarians to
"keep a watch or
clock hanging before you" (p.
1927
Elton
Mayo
(1933)
began
a series
experiments
which
stimulated
development
Human
Relations
School
organizational
psychology and occupational sociology.
The studies, named
Hawthorne
involved
plant
manipulation
Western
various
Electric
physical
Company
conditions,
such
Chicago,
as light,
temperature control, rest,
work hours and payment systems in an attempt to
and attention from supervisors (Glasgow, 1982).
The studies, which ended in
1932, were later speculated to be invalid (Gruneberg, 1979).
However, they are
significant
historical
interest
because of
importance
Human
Relations
School
in psychological
research.
According
to this
body
thought,
"satisfied
workers are more productive
than
dissatisfied
workers,
and job satisfaction is influenced by
human relationships
within work
organizations" (Glasgow
1982, p. 5).
Two important early
studies of job satisfaction
took place during the
1930s.
Kornhauser and Sharp (1932)
tudied a group of female factory workers
isolated
supervision"
as the
major
factor related
to job
dissatisfaction.
Further, they found
that negative feelings caused by poor
supervision influenced
other areas.
Another early study
of job satisfaction
involved 500 teachers who were questioned about different aspects of their
jobs.
Hoppock (1935) analyzed the 100 most satisfied and the 100 least satisfied
responses and concluded
that job satisfaction consisted of many factors, the
presence of which in a work situation led to satisfaction whereas their absence
to job
dissatisfaction.
Based
on his
research,
he formulated
a theory
suggesting that satisfaction and dissatisfaction form a continuum.
Following World War II, interest in job satisfaction research developed
into an interdisciplinary approach with
ome emphasis on
problem-solving
relationship
between
employee
satisfaction
and
performance
(Brayfield & Crockett, 1955).
1957
, Frederick Herzberg and his associates published an important
review of the literature of job satisfaction research.
Herzberg et al., challenged
"character
methodology was improved.
With a variety of additional related issues such
as the psychological characteristics of workers under investigation, the decade
1970s
saw
satisfaction
research
well
established
interdisciplinary
field.
Many
major
theories
satisfaction
were
developed
hierarchy
fulfillment
between
theory
theory,
1950s
two-factor
equity
theory,
early
theory
group
1980s.
"They
need-fulfillment
theory,
and
include
theory
perception
need-
value-
theory"
(Glasgow, 1982,
These theories have been classified as either content or
process
theorists
theories
were
(Campbell,
interested i
Dunnette
Lawler
determining
those
Weik, 1970).
factors related
Content
motivation
explain job
an individual
satisfaction in
to work while process theorists attempted
terms of the interaction between the individual's
needs and what the job actually offers" (Wellstood, 1984/1985,
p. 15).
Abraham
Maslow's
(1943)
general
theory
motivation
need-
hierarchy theory, is a major content theory and has been used as a frame of
reference for many job satisfaction
studies.
Maslow stated that man has five
basic categories of needs arranged in an ascending hierarchy of five levels.
Lower-order needs were (a) physiological needs, (b) safety and security needs,
(c) social
(affection) needs.
Higher-order needs were (d)
the need for
esteem
, including
need
mastery
achievement
along
with
recognition and approval and (e) the need for self-actualization, that is,
desire to be all one is capable of being.
Although lower-order needs had to be
met before higher-order needs assumed importance, the satisfaction of a need
removed it as a motivator. (Figure 1)
18
SELF-
ACTUAL-
IZATION:
to become
everything that
one is capable of
becoming
(measure up to one's
own criteria for success)
ESTEEM NEEDS:
self-respect, positive
self-evaluation, prestige
(dependent on others)
BELONGINGNESS AND LOVE NEEDS:
love, affection, friends, companionship
(dependent on self and others)
SAFETY NEEDS:
protection from the elements
(dependent on self and others)
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS:
hunger, thirst, sex, et
(dependent on self)
Figure 1.
Maslow'
Hierarchy of Needs
Note.
iob s<
Adapted from An application of the refomulated (Herzberg) theory of
satisfaction
to selected
administrative
affairs
taff in
Florida
State
University System, by A. P
. Kozal, 1979.
Maslow's
theory concerned
the relationship of each need level
to the
I
or the ability to become all one is capable of becoming (Maslow, 1943).
Thus,
the need-hierarchy
theory is
based
on the
idea
that
lower-order needs are
never totally satisfied.
Deprivation of satisfaction over time causes the needs
to evolve into strong motivators.
contrast,
higher-order needs
must
continuously
sought
are seldom
completely
satisfied.
an article
entitled
"The
Herzberg
Controversy,"
Bockman
(1971)
discussed
traditional theory or the total body of feeling an individual has about a job,
which includes both job-related and environment-related factors.
The feeling
moves
along
a single
continuum
between
satisfaction
dissatisfaction.
Neutrality
a condition
which
an individual
neither
satisfied
dissatisfied, is mid-way on the continuum.
(Figure 2)
Job Factors
Negative or Absent
Positive or Present
Dissatisfaction Neutrality Satisfaction
Figure 2.
Bockman's
Traditional Model of Job Satisfaction
Deprivation
pay,
recognition,
some
other
factor
will
move
individual toward
the negative end.
salary, will cause positive movement.
The improvement of a factor, such as
Finally, if the presence of a variable in
the work situation leads to job satisfaction, one could logically expect that its
absence would lead to job dissatisfaction.
associated
with
feelings
dissatisfaction.
Herzberg
and
associates,
employing the critical incident method developed by Flanagan (1954), tested
concept
male
engineers
and
accountants
Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania.
From these data, Herzberg et al. (1959) developed the theory of
job attitudes called the
Two-Factor
Theory or the Motivator-Hygiene
Theory.
Since
1959
, the
Two-Factor
Theory
been
used
extensively
satisfaction
research.
emphasis
on the
contribution
psychological
growth
to job
satisfaction
and
recognition
that
opportunities
psychological
growth
can
found
within
work
itself
particular
importance in the development of general job satisfaction theory.
Two-
Factor
Theory
states
that
motivation
does
exist
on a continuum,
postulated
Hoppock,
consists
continue,
satisfiers
motivators
, and job dissatisfiers,
or hygienes.
(Figure 3)
(Satisfiers/
Motivators)
Satisfaction
No Satisfaction
(Dissatisfiers/
No Dissatisfaction
Hygienes)
Dissatisfaction
Figure 3.
Herzberg'
Two-Factor Attitude Model
Cummings and El Salmi
(1968) divided
the Herzberg theory into the
r* a a
Lrr
n ~H nnw ~n ~
The opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction; it is no job
satisfaction
satisfaction
Conversely, the opposite of job dissatisfaction is not job
,it is no job dissatisfaction.
satisfaction
determined
feeling
employee
towards
factors
content
ire classified
of his job or job environment.
Content job
achievement, recognition, advancement,
responsibility and work itself.
These factors were mentioned most
often by those interviewed as factors that gave the most satisfaction.
Job dissatisfaction is determined by the feelings the individual has
toward
policy
the context of his job.
and
administration,
Context factors include:
technical
aspects
company
supervision,
interpersonm
conditions.
al
relations
with
supervision,
salary
and
working
These factors were mentioned most often as causing the
employee the most dissatisfaction.
133)
(Cummings & El Salmi,
1968, p.
Motivators
responsibility
such
and interest in
achievement
, recognition,
work itself were
advancement
intrinsic factors
which,
when present in a job,
productivity.
recognition.
acted as satisfiers with a positive effect on employee
Of the motivators, achievement was the strongest, followed by
The motivators corresponded to Maslow'
higher-order needs.
The six motivators or satisfiers as defined by Herzberg et al. (1959) and
Herzberg (1966) follow:
1. Advancement refers to actual changes in the status or position of an
individual in an organization.
It also includes the probability of or
hope of advancement.
Achievement refers to all events that lead toward realization of the
worker's personal objectives (successful completion of a job, finding
a solution to a problem, or seeing the results of one'
own work).
The definition also includes the opposite-failure to achieve.
Recognition
comprises
acts
praise
and/or
notice
(positive
. .
- ~ I- -~ t 1.. 1 ~ ~ ~ -- 2 t2 -' -. .3 tt. 1 -
,.
Responsibility relates to authority and includes those sequences of
events
in which
the worker mentioned satisfaction
derived from
being given responsibility for his own work or the work of others,
or being
incidents
given
new
in which
responsibility.
there
was
Also
a loss of
included
were
satisfaction from
those
lack
responsibility.
Possibility of Growth refers to growth in specific skill areas as well as
growth
in status
which
would
enable
individual
move
onward and upward in a company.
This factor also encompasses
the lack of opportunity for growth. (Herzberg, 1966,
pp. 193-198)
Hygiene
factors
included
security,
supervision
physical
working conditions and corresponded to Maslow'
lower-order needs.
They
were extrinsic to the job and, when absent, linked to dissatisfaction.
Herzberg
and his associates made it very clear, however "that the presence of a hygiene
factor
doesn't automatically produce
satisfaction and
the absence of
motivator doesn't necessarily lead to dissatisfaction" (Wellstood, 1984/1985, p.
16).
The eight hygienes or dissatisfiers as defined by Herzberg (1966) are as
follows:
Salary
includes
compensation
sequences
events
which
SOI
(wage or salary increase) plays a role.
ne type of
Unfulfilled
expectations of a salary increase are also included in this category.
Working
condition
refers to the physical conditions of work and
facilities
available
performing
work
(adequate
tools
space, lighting and ventilation).
Supervision-technical
includes
those
events
which
competence or incompetence of the supervisor is the critical factor.
Statements concerning a supervisor'
willingness or unwillingness
to delegate
responsibility
or his
willingness
or unwillingness
v
23
Company policy and administration includes factors in which some
overall
aspect
company
involved.
Herzberg
(1959)
identified two types:
of a company'
the first concerns the adequacy or inadequacy
organization and management; the second involves
the positive or negative effects of the company'
personnel policies.
Status
refers
to the sequence of
events
in which
the respondent
specifically mentioned
that a
change in status affected his or
feelings about the job (attaining a larger office, use of a company car
or having a personal secretary).
. Personal
life involves situations
which some aspect of the job
affects
individual'
personal
in such
a manner
that
respondent'
feelings about his job are affected
(a family-opposed
job transfer).
Tob security refers to signs of job security (continued employment,
tenure
financial
safeguards).
Feelings
alone of
security
insecurity were not accepted.
Herzberg stated
(Herzberg, 1966, pp.
that there could be situations in
193-198)
which a motivator
could act as a hygiene and vice-versa (Herzberg et al.,
1959).
After
12 studies
involving
percent
1,685
employees,
all factors
related
however,
Sto job s
Herzberg
satisfaction
(1966:
were
) concluded
motivators
that
while 69
percent of all factors related to job dissatisfaction were hygienes.
Salary was difficult to classify in the original study as it appeared in
reports
labeled
satisfaction
as well
as in reports of high
satisfaction.
Researchers concluded that the former reports were related to employees who
felt they deserved higher pay or that increases were not based on performance
while
latter
were
from
employees
who
increases
were
based
performance and that their own salaries were fair (Herzberg et al.,
1959).
Herzberg's
theory
been
very
popular.
Since
first
published
S* I I --
-^ ,
24
Burr (1980/1981) listed 13 studies conducted over a 10-year period in the
field of education alone.
Between 1982 and 1991, at least 56 dissertations have
dealt to some extent with Herzberg'
theory.
Of these, approximately 15 were
related
to higher
education
faculty
or staff.
Only
three
were
related
librarians (Dahlstrom, 1982
Hamshari, 1985/1986;
Timmons, 1991).
Initially
criticism of Herzberg's theory focused on the narrow range of
jobs
investigated,
the absence of reliability and
validity
data,
the lack of a
measure
overall
satisfaction
use
only
one
attitude
measure for overall job satisfaction (Burr,
1980/1981).
Although replication
studies rendered most of these criticisms moot (Herzberg et al,
1959), other
critics claimed
that the
"theory is bound by its methodology
that only one
method, the critical incident method, could provide empirical support for [it]"
(Burr, 1980/1981,
p. 38).
Herzberg refuted this criticism by stating that "the fact
that another method of testing motivation-hygiene theory has not supported
it is meaningless unless it can be demonstrated that such a method i
valid
appropriate.
One cannot logically
employ
a typing
skill
measure
and
use
results
to evaluate
theory
intellectual
development" (Herzberg, 1976, p.
246).
Work and Motivation,
Vroom
(1964) wrote that the results of the
critical-incident
method
were
due
defensive
processes
within
individuals interviewed.
Further
he criticized the methods used as neither
correlational nor experimental.
Although
there
been
trong
reaction
Herzberg'
Two-Factor
Theory,
it has led to the analysis of specific work characteristics in studies of
Measuring Tob Satisfaction
Typically
satisfaction
been
measured
an objective,
descriptive
or a projective
survey.
Objective
surveys
generally
contain
questions with pre-determined responses while descriptive surveys are more
subjective, allowing for unstructured replies through open-ended questions.
Projective surveys
are devised
psychologists
or psychiatrists
assess
mental health and are not normally used in a work setting (Glenn, 1982/1983;
Wellstood, 1984/1985).
The critical incident technique used by Herzberg was a
form of descriptive survey.
Thomas (1977),
Kozal (1979), and Burr (1980/1981)
used modified
college, college,
versions
university
technique
administrators
their
and
studies
community
staff members.
Glenn
(1982/1983)
standardized
and
Wellstood
(1984/1985)
both
measures of job satisfaction and
reported
selected
lack
many
Descriptive
Index (JDI) to measure job satisfaction and dissatisfaction for their studies of
vocational education administrators and medical technologists, respectively.
Olson
(1988/1990) used
the Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire (MSQ) in
his study of college placement officers.
In a comparison of the JDI and the MSQ, Robert Gulon wrote in The
Eighth Mental Measurements Yearbook that both were the result of research
in the
1960s
, had an underlying rationale,
provided reliable scores, showed
evidence
construct
validity
were
extensively
normed
. 1680).
Campbell et al.,
(1970), in reviewing the
JDI, stated
that "nowhere do
authors] mention
vs. extrinsic factors.
Herzberg'
two-factor theory and the notion of intrinsic
It would have been interesting to
see how they relate
The MSQ is one of several measures
developed in
conjunction
with
Minnesota
Studies
Vocational
Rehabilitation
as they
are better
known
, the Work Adjustment Project.
The studies
began in
1957 with two
objectives,
development
diagnostic
tools
assessing
work
adju
stment
rehabilitation,
'potential'
and
of applicant
evaluation of
work
vocational
adjustment
outcomes. These primary goals are embodied in ... the Theory
of Work Adjustment [which] uses the correspondence or lack of
it between the work personality and
the work environment as
principal
reason
explanation
observed
work
adjustment outcomes
satisfactorinesss, satisfaction, and tenure).
Work adjustment is predicted by matching an individual'
work
personality
with
England & Lofquist, 1967,
work
p.v)
environments.
(Weiss,
Davis
The MSQ is a paper and pencil inventory.
employee's satisfaction with his or her job. The
information on the aspects of job
It is designed to measure an
; MSQ provides more specific
satisfaction than do more general measures.
It is available in both long and short form and is suitable for distribution
through the mail, as it is self-administering with directions on the first page.
A detailed description of the MSQ is provided in Chapter II.
D'Elia (1975
1979) was the first investigator to use the MSQ to measure
the job satisfaction of librarians.
Chrisman
(1975),
Chwe (1976;
1978), and
Rockman (1984;
1985/1986) also used it,
with D'Elia and Rockman selecting
the short form while Chwe used the long form.
Chwe felt strongly that the
short form should be used for subjects with high educational levels, such as
librarians
(Chwe
1976
The
MSQ
is appropriate
use
with
individuals who can read
at the fifth grade level or higher.
The
100-item
Work Behavior
Type
Definition
Neff (1969) describes adult work behavior as "the complex product of a
long
series
of learned
habitual
styles
perceiving
coping
with
demands
environment
That
an individual
coping
behaviors consolidate to form a particular work style.
Industrial Psychology
The field of industrial psychology developed specifically to explore the
behaviors
people
work
environment.
Researchers
claimed
that
work be
separate
?havior
theories
a distinctive
to explain
area
human
behavior
behavior
people
which
at work
(Ne
requires
ff, 1969;
Wellstood
,1984/1985).
Historically
industrial
psychologists
have
viewed
entry into a field from the organization'
perspective rather than from that of
individual.
Although
"from
an organizational
standpoint,
questions
concerning the matching of a
job candidate'
abilities
to organizational
requirements
[are]
more
important
than
individual'
perspective
matching
individuals
jobs
that
right
them
important"
(Wellstood, 1984/1985, p. 43).
Recruitment and training costs are a practical reason to be aware of the
match between organization and individual.
"When an employee leaves the
organization, a drain is placed on the recruiting/training budget, and there is
much loss of time and
productivity"
(Nickens,
1984
Further, a
"job-
employee mismatch"
causes both emnlovee and administrator to Pxnerience
28
personnel do not meet organizational standards and, of those who survive
the first year, almost 44 percent leave during the second year.
This is both an
enormous
financial
drain
organization
and
an emotional
financial problem for the individual.
Although the majority of employers state that their
human resources
are their most important asset, organizations typically do not substantiate this
claim (Jelinik, 1979).
She writes that "employees may be used ineffectively in
sense
that
their
existing
skills,
knowledge,
aptitudes
are poorly
matched with the requirements of their jobs
. .
the abilities
. of employees
also are often underutilized in terms of what they are expected to do in their
jobs"
287).
Jelinik
further
states
that
"even
most
sophisticated
organizations
are relative
novices
when
comes
proper
development and utilization of human beings" ibidd).
Evolution of Work Behavior Types
The study of work
behavior traits and
types as
they
are understood
today began with the work of William Moulton Marston, a psychologist and
scientist who published Emotions of Normal People in 1928.
Marston built
early
theories
on the
work
German
psychologist
Wundt,
who
established the first official psychology laboratory in 1879. He is considered
the founder of experimental psychology because of his research with nerve,
muscle and emotional responses (Olson,
1988/1990).
Wundt departed from
the view, then current, that pleasantness and unpleasantness are the only two
emotions
proposed
addition
four
other
emotions:
excitement
Marston
also
reviewed
work
Jung
who,
book,
Psychological
Types,
wrote
about
clusters
characteristics
"collective unconscious"
that helps to mold
the personality and behavior of
an individual.
Jung
emphasized
that people
choose
a dominant attitude
toward life:
introversion,
which is an orientation toward inner processes, or
extroversion, which is an orientation toward the external world of people and
events.
conscious
also
values
viewed
human
unconscious
personality
values
terms
sublimation
and
polarities:
repression,
rational and irrational functions and the previously mentioned introversion
and extroversion.
Finally, Jung wrote that each person has only four ways in
which
to orient
toward
world:
"rational"
functions
thinking
(recognizing meaning) and feeling (experiencing pleasure or pain) and two
"irrational"
functions
sensation
or perceiving
by means
of unconscious
and subliminal processes (Jung, 1923).
Through
review
work
of Wundt and
Jung
and
based
research
into
motation
(emotions
as measured
motor
consciousness,
nerve, and muscle response),
Marston
(1927
1928) identified four primary
emotions
which
termed
dominance,
compliance,
inducement
and
submission.
He defined a primary emotion as "an emotion which contained
the maximal amount of alliance, antagonism, [and] superiority of
strength of
the motor self in respect to the motor stimulus" (Marston, 1928, p. 106).
Marston
(1927)
then
defined
dominance
"central
release
additional motor energy directed
toward dominating obstacles to a reaction
already in progress" (p.
349).
He continued
it is
"an increase of the self to
r
30
triumphs, the creation of art or music and the primary emotion of infants in
their first
three
years
are all
examples of
dominant
behavior
or emotion.
(Wellstood,
1984/1985
Nickens
1984).
However
emotion
uncontrolled
, it may be viewed negatively.
In a person with a position of
authority
such
behavior
may
cause
dissatisfaction
or unhappiness
subordinates.
Compliance, according to Marston
(1927), ranks as a basic emotional
response.
"Compliance means
control
(but not inhibition)
of tonic motor
discharge reinforcement by a phasic reflex" (p. 350).
Marston (1928) further
defined compliance as a
decrease of the motor self to let an opponent move the organism
as if by will; either passively,
dominant
activity, or
actively
by making the self give up some
, by compelling the organism to
move
In some
anti-dominant
way
. l [It
feeling
acceptance of
an object or
force
as inevitably just what it is,
followed by self-yielding sufficient to bring about harmonious
readjustment of self to object. (p. 183)
Compliance
surrender.
may
occur
because
sudden
change,
fear
or voluntary
An individual may believe or come to recognize that forces of
stimuli
outside
oneself
stronger
than
internal
forces.
Intense
conditioning,
or repeated
environmental
stimuli,
may
lead
to compliance
just as moderate repetitious
punishment may produce compliance while a
harsh occasional punishment may not (Nickens,
1984).
Marston
(1927)
tated
that submission
was
a "voluntary yielding to
whatever
stimuli
may
imposed.
does
seem
to overwhelm,
dominate the subject organism by force, but rather brings about a spontaneous
takes
form
consideration
service
other
selflessness,
accommodation and generosity" (Wellstood,
1984/1985, p. 34).
Inducement can be seen by observing the behavior of individuals who
gain voluntary submission from others.
Marston's 1928 definition states that
inducement consists of an increase of the self, and making of the
self more
completely
allied
with
the stimulus
person,
purpose of establ
The definite cha
utterly necessary
fishing control
racteristic
win
over that person's behavior.
induceme
voluntary
is a feeling
submission
that
of another
person to do what the subject says.
This feeling [is] increasingly
pleasant in proportion as the other person submits.
273)
Inducement
may
involve
"persuasion,
personal
charm,
friendlines
frequently seduction or subtle manipulation
. Every positive relationship
contains
some
inducement
behavior,
there
must
inducement
submission for alliance to occur"
(Nickens,
1984,
In modern
culture,
advertising is an example of inducement.
Marston
's Two-Axis Model
Marston
illustrated
four
emotions
as forming
a two-axis
model
with dominance and compliance constituting one axis and inducement and
submission constituting the second axis.
Individuals attempt to maintain a
balance between
the extremes of
each axis and
the point of balance varies
which, according to Marston, explains differences in behavioral tendencies.
In Marston
's model, as seen in Figure 4,
dominance and
compliance
form one axis.
Inducement and submission form the second axis.
The two
emotions of each
pair are located at opposite ends of a continuum and are
e an arl krr i-i, a"t A*< a wnn a^ t nf an ^t, a^ Va 4% 4 -^^ yr av -f- n4 ta a -^ n'* 4 ^ tw a- r. A 1 i-i
Dominance
Inducement
Active
Process
Orientation
Passive
Orientation
Orientation
m m m m m S m *
Product
Orientation
Submission
Compliance
Figure 4.
Marston'
Two-Axis Model
Note.
From The Marcus Paul
Placement Profile
Work
Behavior
Analysis by J.
M. Nickens, 1984.
axes
are divided
horizontally.
The
active component and
outward
orientation
are seen
in the
upper
dimensions
dominance
inducement while the lower dimension includes the inward orientation and
the passive component made up of submission and compliance.
Geier (1979) both updated and clarified some of Marston's terminology.
He defined the four emotions as follows:
Submission
environment.
passive
aggressiveness
favorable
Inducement
environment.
active
positive
movement
favorable
(p. 2)
He also added the idea that persons whose traits cluster predominantly in the
upper dimension of the model have a process orientation.
These individuals
"want to shape the environment according to
their particular view.
are individuals who continually test and push the limits"
ibidd, p.
These
Those
people whose traits cluster in the lower dimension are more product-oriented
and "focus on the how and why" ibidd).
The
dimensions
Marston
Two-Axis
Model
indicate
behavioral
tendencies.
The behavior traits of an individual tend
to cluster around one
dimension more than the others but each individual exhibits some or all of
the types of behavior to at least some degree.
The inability of Marston's
model to explain the simultaneous presence
of feelings of dominance and compliance and of inducement and submission
has been cited as the major limitation of the model.
Interpretations that fac-
tor in environmental considerations as influences are
, however,
worth con-
sideration. According to Nickens (1984),
"people will display work behavior
that
is not
normal.
normal
Thus,
them
when
this is not the normal
induces
behavior
pressures
. and
beyond
beyond
theory.
However
, behaving
differently
under
different
circumstances
normal" (p.
Clustered Traits
. is
researchers (Allport & Odbert, 1936; Cattell, 1946; Geier, 1967
1979
, 1980) sub-
stantiated trait clusters
, with Geier (1980) reporting that "many of Marston'
suggested adjectives for each of his four emotions had correlated together at
least R
= .60"
Marston's
model has a non-pathological orientation
with four categories supported by cluster traits.
This is in contrast to other
theories
which
are pathologically
oriented
and
contain
multiple
clusters
(Wellstood,
1984/1985; Nickens,
1984).
Marston'
non-pathological orienta-
tion makes the model particularly appropriate for work behavior analysis as
work is a normal activity for adults.
Geier (1980) stated that "one must consider semantic change, or change
of meaning.
Then
, too, some words acquire negative connotations over time,
or with much repetition have lost their original vividness and become worn
and faded"
(p. 12).
Accordingly,
he built on the work of Marston (1927
1928)
and Alpert and Odbert (1936) in developing an updated list of traits.
whole, most traits were listed as adjectives
On the
which made them easier to review
Figure 6.
Marcus Paul Placement Profile
and use in additional research.
Geier'
list of clustered traits is presented in
Building theoretically on Marston'
model and Geier'
research, Bauch
(1981)
Nickens
(1984)
developed
Marcus
Paul
Placement
Profile
(MPPP).
The instrument was designed to measure work behavior type for the
purpose of matching individuals and jobs.
Counseling, career development,
recruitment
placement,
training,
team
building,
enhancement
35
individuals possess a variety of qualities and patterns of behavior in any work
situation (Glenn, 1982/1983,
Bauch (1981) did not view work behavior traits and types as judgments
of work
behaviors
but rather
as terms
that
could
used
to increase
understanding of work behavior, to the benefit of both the organization and
the individual.
He advocated positive or neutral
terminology with specific
terms
reflective
work
behaviors.
particular,
replaced
some
Marston
's and Geier'
terms which had negative connotations with positive
or neutral
terms
applicable
a work
environment.
example,
Geier
changed
Marston
original
categories
dominance,
inducement,
submission
compliance
dominance,
influence,
teadiness
and
compliance
while
Bauch
Nickens
designated
four
work
behavior
types as energizer, inducer, concentrator and producer.
The
behaviors
that
cluster
on the
dominance dimension are
placed
under the energizer work behavior type.
The term energizer is more positive
also
more
descriptive of
type
as found
in a work
environment.
Marston'
inducement and Geier'
influence became inducer, a positive and
descriptive
Placement
term
Profile
representation
than
second
(MPPP)
Marston
work
type,
behavior
type.
The
concentrator
submission
Marcus
more
dimension
and
Paul
positive
broader
description of the type than Geier'
term,
teadiness, which is only one aspect
of the trait.
Finally, the more descriptive and more positive term producer
replaced
compliance.
In all four instances,
the MPPP labels were changed
from adjectives to nouns to indicate a type as opposed to a trait (Bauch,
1981).
bO
tU0
'5
(U
0) '.-
4-'
U)
oJ bo
Sn.
n
a.
-4
U
*1*1
U,
<0
a :
rt r
Dominance
Influencing
(Inducement)*
Steadiness
Compliance
(Submission)*
adventurous
aggressive
argumentative
arrogant
assertive
bold
brave
competitive
daring
decisive
defiant
determined
direct
eager
fearless
firm
force of character
forceful
inquisitive
inventive
irritable
nervy
original
outspoken
persistent
pioneering
positive
rebellious
restless
rigorous
self-reliant
stubborn
unconquerable
vigorous
will power
admirable
affectionate
animated
attractive
boastful
charming
companionable
confident
convincing
cordial
energetic
expressive
fervent
flexible
fluent
good mixer
high-spirited
inspiring
jovial
joyful
life of the party
light-hearted
open-minded
optimistic
persuasive
playful
polished
popular
prideful
proud
responsive
self-assured
spirited
talkative
trusting
accommodating
attentive
cheerful
companionable
confidential
considerate
contented
controlled
deliberate
earnest
easy mark
even-tempered
friendly
generous
gentle
good-natured
gracious
hospitable
kind
lenient
loyal
mild
moderate
modest
neighborly
nonchalant
obedient
patient
peaceful
possessive
reliable
sentimental
sympathetic
trustful
willing
accurate
adaptable
adherent
agreeable
calculating
calm
cautious
conformist
consistent
contemplative
cultured
devout
diplomatic
easily-led
exacting
fearful
fussy
God-fearing
harmonious
humble
logical
objective
obliging
peaceful
precise
receptive
resigned
respectful
soft-spoken
strict
systematic
tactful
timid
tolerant
well-disciplined
Energizer
(Dominance)*
(Dominance)0
aggressive
bold
certain
competitive
decisive
demanding
determined
direct
dominant
eager
forceful
independent
leader
new ideas
original
outspoken
sure
takes charge
venturesome
vigorous
Inducer
(Inducement)*
(Influencing)0
attracts people
change agent
convincing
enthusiastic
expressive
friendly
happy
hopeful
inspiring
playful
personable
persuader
popular
respected
seeks new ideas
sociable
talkative
team leader
Concentrator
(Submission)*
(Steadiness)0
accepting
attentive
caring
committed
contented
considerate
diplomatic
disciplined
easy going
exacting
loyal
orderly
patient
peaceful
reasonable
respectful
satisfied
sharing
steady
tolerant
trusting
understanding
Producer
(Compliance)*
(Compliance)0
accurate
agreeable
careful
cautious
compliant
conforming
contented
devoted
exacting
follows orders
follows procedures
governed
logical
precise
resigned
respectful
responsible
systematic thinker
Figure 7
Marcus Paul Placement Profile List of Traits (Bauch, 1981)
Note: Marston'
(1928) original terms; 0 Geier'
(1980) revised list of traits.
The theoretical basis of the MPPP is similar to Herzberg'
motivator-
hygiene model for job satisfaction.
That is
, Herzberg recognized
that
factors which enhance job satisfaction (the motivators) do not automatically
produce dissatisfaction when absent and the factors that induce dissatisfaction
1_
pairs" in statistical models.
The recognition of trait independence provided a
more powerful tool for explaining complex behaviors on an individual basis
(Nickens, 1984, p. 13).
A major contribution in work behavior analysis was the automation of
the response analysis and reporting.
Nickens developed a system in which
responses
marked
MPPP
response
sheet
can
entered
into
microcomputer,
analyzed,
and
results
printed
immediately
a form
easily used for discussion.
The report can be retained by an individual for
future reference and further discussion.
There
are 24 sets of forced
choice
items
the MPPP
. In
each set,
respondents indicate the term most descriptive of their work behavior and
the term least descriptive of their work behavior.
Work behavior types are
then
profile
reported
includes
as energizers,
a narrative
inducers
description
, concentrators,
and
an individual'
producers.
s strengths
The
tendencies
work
setting.
more
complete
description
administration, analysis and reporting of the MPPP is provided in Chapter iI.
Academic Librarians
Personality Studies
considerable
literature
exists
on the
personality
librarian.
Bryan
(1952),
Douglas
and
Rainwater
(1965)
studied
various
populations of librarians between 1948 and 1965.
All three studies showed the
average
librarian
to be
more
submissive
or deferential
than
general
nonulation
and to
Dossess
a set of
qualities
summarized
term
.. ....
However,
Bryan (1952),
who studied public librarians in one of the earliest
comprehensive studies of librarian
personality,
used
the Guildford-Martin
Inventory
of Factors
(GAMIN)
which
fallen
into
disuse.
It has
been
criticized for several reasons but especially because of its subjectivity (Agada,
1987).
Douglass (1957) sought to determine the extent to which the profession
selects members
having a
characteristic personality pattern.
Between
1947
1948
administered
a series
measures
, using
Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) as his major instrument.
This test
was designed for use in psychopathological testing and could be inappropriate
for understanding normal behavior (Agada,
1987
Fisher,
1988).
Rainwater
(1965) administered the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS) to 94
student
librarians.
findings
suggested
greater
tendencies
toward
nurturance and succorance
, as well as low heterosexuality
conform
the broad groupings of behavior described by Bryan (1952) and Douglas (1957).
However
Rainwater'
interpretations
are now
considered
questionable
(Agada,
1987).
In the decade of the 1960s
, Baillie (1961/1962) studied a small sample of
librarians
and
found
that
although
they
conformed
"normal"
personality patterns, they were aloof, suspicious and wary.
McMahon (1967)
reported
on librarians'
lack
of leadership
potential
and noted
that
"people
with certain personality traits are drawn towards librarianship as a career" (p.
Morrison (1961),
Clayton (1968), and Magrill (1969) produced three doctoral
studies
related
librarian
personality
The
Ghiselli
Self-Description
Inventory was used to study academic librarians (Morrison, 1961).
He stated
orientation
academic
librarianship
and
found
subjects
disinterested in decision-making and lacking in initiative and assertiveness.
During the
1970s studies reporting the docile nature and passivity of
library students were published.
The works of Segal (1970),
Goodwin (1972),
and Plate and Stone (1974) are representative of this research
particular,
generally
librarians
with Segal,
reporting male librarians to be practical, somewhat unfeeling and
suspicious.
they
studied
Presthaus
to be
(1970)
bureaucratic
Hamilton
resistant
(1976)
found
to change,
both
sociological and
(1976)
technological.
investigated
In a study
personality
of 160 full-time librarians,
character
Clift
group,
accuracy
of library patron'
stereotype of librarians.
Results revealed high
needs for achievement, endurance, and order and low needs for exhibition,
aggression and change.
Males but not females had high needs for nurturance
deference
and a low need for
autonomy.
Both
sexes
scored high
measures
self-control
personal
adjustment.
and
Hall
(1973)
employed
the Sixteen Personality Questionnaire
(16PF)
to determine mean
differences in selected
personality
characteristics
between a female college
norm group and a group of female prospective librarians.
In contrast to the
occupational stereotype of librarians as
rigid,
conventional,
tense
and less
stable
library
science
students
were
found
to exhibit
these
characteristics to any greater degree than the norm group.
In addition
three scales with significant differences (more intelligent, experimenting and
self-sufficient) were favorable to the prospective librarians.
Personality studies of librarians and
prospective librarians continued
"university
librarianship
constitutes
occupational
sub-culture
characterized by very distinctive and potentially very dysfunctional
values,
attitudes
and
work
preferences"
163).
found
that
academic
librarians studied lacked self-confidence, avoided aggression, were resistant to
job challenges,
were primarily motivated by
extrinsic rewards and showed
little
inclination
toward
leadership,
assertiveness,
social
interaction
change.
related
Moore (1981) reported no differences in personality characteristics as
to managerial
talent for those who selected librarianship as a first
career, those who worked in another field which required graduate training
prior to entering librarianship and those who chose it as an alternative career.
"Regardless of the route by which a person comes to academic librarianship, it
appears that the same type does ultimately come"
146).
Moore did find
librarians
closer
to the
norm
on general
personality
characteristics
than
earlier studies
backgrounds
had reported.
men
Lemkau
employed
(1984) studied
the personalities and
female-dominated
professions,
including
nurse,
elementary
school
teacher
and
librarian.
They
were
compared with 63 men (S's) employed in sex-typical fields.
A's showed lower
adherence
traditional
sex-role
expectations
such
household
responsibilities and exhibited greater "tender-minded"
emotional sensitivity.
"There
was
also
evidence
that
upward-mobility
strivings
may
have
contributed
to atypical
career
choices
with
more
frequently
being
members of social minorities and/or of lower socio-economic background"
110).
The data suggest that disadvantaged youth seeking upward mobility
may
choose
female-dominated
professions
as easier
to permeate
- .
and
students with counterparts in law and liberal arts.
Both third-year library and
liberal
arts students
were less assertive
than first-year students
while law
students
maintained
a comparable
degree of
assertiveness
at both
levels.
Agada suggested that library education does not enhance student assertion.
He recommended that the profession focus on the socialization of
students to
an appropriate
professional
demeanor.
Webreck'
findings
(1985/1986)
suggested
that librarians exhibit introverted and
judging personality types.
This was consistent with Agada'
(1984/1985;
1987) assertion studies.
Finally,
a study of 500 first-year library school students from eight European countries
(Bruyns,
1989) revealed that library schools attracted students who were less
technical, less creative, less sports-loving and,
possibly, less ambitious when
compared with other Higher Vocational Education students.
was found between male and female students.
Little difference
The research indicated "future
librarians
are still
humanities" (p.
persons
Further,
who
in general
"the profession
are interested
culture
attracts students who are, in
general, conservative, who do not show a tendency towards taking initiatives,
who
have
an attitude
inclining
towards
rendering
services
who,
general, cannot be characterized as having dynamic personalities" ibidd).
one
most
recent
studies
available,
David
(1990/1991)
concentrated
on librarians
working
technological
environments.
reported
that
librarians,
independent
their
sub-specialties,
were
dominant on Holland'
Artist
Type" (p.
164).
the groups tested were dominant on Holland
they conservative, as both earlier studies and
She also found that none of
's Conventional Type nor were
stereotypical representations of
"ideological and not a little farcical" (p.
For example, replying "true" to
question
think
would
work
a librarian"
indicates
feminine orientation.
In other words
, the very job of librarian is considered a
feminine activity.
Fisher argued strongly that there is doubt in the utility of
entire
psychological
approach
to librarianship.
reviewed
several
studies and concluded that each attempted to generalize from samples which
were frequently very small and
used
personality tests shown
to be largely
inappropriate.
"No real attempts have been made to link the individual and
the social, personality traits are mostly viewed as absolute, existing across all
situations" ibidd, p.
Agada (1984) also criticized earlier studies of librarian
personality
using
questionable
control
groups,
limited
and/or
non-
random sampling,
use of other career professionals as
"norms"
and lack of
replication.
Most important, most of the studies used dated multitrait global
personality
inventories
which
meet
current
high
standards of reliability and validity, failing especially to show a
high degree of convergent and discriminant validity.
Most of
these
instruments
have
a psychopathological
basis
which
usually inappropriate and inadequate for the understanding of
normal behavior.
38-39)
Fisher (1988) advocated a more sociological approach to this area of study, one
which acknowledges the interaction
between the individual and
the social,
which
uses
techniques or instruments
suitable for varied
and normal
individuals.
"The conflicting
results
would lead
one
to believe
that
libraries like other organizations are populated by staff with varied interests
and attributes" (p.
Agada (1984) wrote
"there is a need for personality
45
personal influencing factors, and on the process of people's decisions to enter
librarianship" (p.
173).
One additional factor which should be considered is
the "strikingly homogeneous demographic characteristics" (Heim and Moen,
1992, p. 95) displayed by library and information science students over the last
years.
1988
study
students
(then)
American
Library
Association
accredited
library
information
science
programs
United States revealed survey respondents to be overwhelmingly white (93.7
percent) and female (80.9 percent).
Tob Satisfaction of Academic Librarians
previously
stated
interest in
satisfaction
can
be seen
number of studies related to it.
Locke (1969) estimated that more than 4,000
articles on the subject had been published while Chwe (1976) increased that
number to
5,000.
Of those
5,000,
Chwe was able to identify only about
studies of job satisfaction in the field of librarianship in the United States (p.
23-27).
Additional studies were completed after
1976 including at least eight
relevant dissertations.
Frankie (1980/1981) studied university catalog and reference librarians
using worker analysis techniques.
Lindstrom
(1980) compared
community
college
and
college / university
librarians
and
found
different
levels
satisfaction for each area.
Swe (1981/1982) compared bibliographers and non-
bibliographers
in academic research libraries while Hook
(1981) concluded
that
library
administrators
in academic
libraries
were
significantly
more
satisfied
with
higher-level
intrinsic
aspects
their
work
than
non-
University
North
Carolina
system
investigated
relationship
between communication satisfaction and job satisfaction.
Hegg (1982/1984)
and Rockman
(1985/1986)
used
MSQ
in studies
designed
to reconcile
inconsistent findings regarding job satisfaction and to produce a demographic
profile of academic librarians.
As early as
1937 the twin issues of job satisfaction and work behavior
type of librarians were addressed in contributions to a symposium entitled
"Square Pegs in Square Holes-Bringing
Together
Talent and Opportunity in
Library
Profession."
particular,
deficiencies
staff
management
techniques,
creativity,
promotions,
monotonous
lack
and
routine
professional
inadequate
salaries
work
with
development
(Nourse,
1937)
little
opportunity
opportunities,
and
lack
limited
clear
specifications and classifications (Timmerman, 1937) were described as factors
related to dissatisfaction.
The issues of salary and advancement opportunities
were
studied
again
Hoage
(1950)
who
investigated
reasons
resignations in two large university libraries.
Salary and advancement were
cited
most
frequently
respondents,
after
marriage
or following
husband.
Herrick (1950) found these same issues of importance in her study
morale
working
college
environment
librarians
although
relationship
with
proper
other
equipment,
employees
physical
were
ranked as "essential"
or "important" slightly more frequently.
A number of
studies related
to the job satisfaction of librarians have
appeared in
the past
years.
Vaughn
(1972/1973)
found
the concept of
multidimensional job satisfaction to be an important research concept useful
multidimensional
nature
satisfaction,
in addition
the causal
influence
managerial
performance
upon
employee
productivity
satisfaction.
Miniter (1975/1976) found women to be generally more satisfied
their
work
than
men,
Scammel
Stead
(1980)
reported
relatively
constant levels of job satisfaction across different age and
and Limpiyasrisakul
tenure categories
(1980/1981) identified involving librarians in decision-
making processes as a factor in improving job satisfaction.
Lindstrom (1980)
determined that the work itself and pay were the most critical areas related to
satisfaction
with
independence,
challenging
work
service
opportunities related
to higher satisfaction
while Smith and Reinow (1984)
reported that a perception of low professional status and lack of professional
development and advancement opportunities were related to dissatisfaction.
Additional
research
(Hook,
1981
Glasgow,
1982;
Lynch
Verdin
, 1983;
Chopra,
1985;
1984;
Allison
Bernstein &
Sartori
Leach
, 1988;
, 1985;
Bengston
Washington,
1988
& Shields,
Mirfakharai
1985; Sherrer,
1991
Horenstein,
1993) revealed library
administrators
to be more satisfied with
intrinsic aspects of their work than non-administrators, management style to
be the best predictor of librarian satisfaction in an academic setting and faculty
status
or rank
to be
a predictor
overall
satisfaction.
Intellectually
challenging work,
advancement opportunities,
independence and autonomy,
support for professional travel and research and salary continued to appear as
factors in job satisfaction/job dissatisfaction.
theory
role
dynamic
focusing
stress
resulting
from
expectations derived from the work environment defined two main types of
48
context of librarianship suggested both were significantly related to overall job
satisfaction (Stead & Scamell
, 1980).
The bureaucratic nature of librarianship
and the limited discretionary power given to professionally trained workers is
stated
to be
professional
unusual
when
education, such
compared
as engineers,
to other
professions
with
teachers, scientists and
specific
hospital
personnel
ibidd).
addition,
relationship
appears
to be
affected
individual and environmental variables and to be moderated by self-esteem,
particularly for lower-level librarians (Hosel,
1984).
Studies Related to Maslow and Herzbera
Maslow'
need hierarchy theory and Herzberg's dual-factor theory were
specifically considered in a series of studies.
One of the earliest (Wahba, 1973)
provided an empirical
test of the applicability of the theories
to librarians.
Promotional
opportunities,
levels and
security were sources of strong
dissatisfaction with women reporting greater dissatisfaction with the factors
addition
to that
supervision.
Women
also
expressed
greater
need
deficiencies
than men in esteem, autonomy
administrators expressed
higher
satisfaction
and self-actualization.
these
areas
with
Library
technical
services librarians expressing the lowest levels.
Wahba
(1985) explored the
differences
job satisfaction for men and
women in a later study which
concentrated
their
perceived
degree
need
fulfillment
need
deficiencies.
Similar levels of fulfillment were reported in lower-order needs,
such as social
or security needs,
with
women reporting significantly
lower
levels of fulfillment than men in esteem and autonomy needs.
In the area of
& Stone,
1974).
These authors reported findings corresponding to those of
Herzberg, most notably that
factors
involved
producing
satisfaction
(and
motivation) are distinct and different from the factors that lead
to job dissatisfaction and
(and
motivation)
are con(
the factors producing job satisfaction
earnedd primarily with the actual job
content (or work-process factors):
the reasons for dissatisfaction
(or hygiene factors)
context in
which
deal
, job
primarily with factors relating to the
done--the job environment.
Both
sets of factors are closely interrelated.
(p. 97)
Partial support for
Herzberg'
theory was reported in a study of academic
librarians in
Jordan
(Hamshari,
1985/1986).
Both motivators and hygienes
contributed to overall job satisfaction and technical services librarians scored
significantly
higher
than
public
service
librarians
on most
dimensions.
Additional
support
theory
was
provided
Nzotta
(1987)
who
determined
compensation,
physical
environment
and
advancement
to be
major
sources
dissatisfaction
with
security,
actual
work
itself
autonomy producing satisfaction in his study of Nigerian librarians.
Additional
studies
librarians
which
drew
upon
Maslow'
Herzberg's
satisfaction
theories investigated
(Isacco,
1985),
the role of work space in productivity and
decision-making and staff morale (Nitecki,
1984),
expectations c
administrators
administrators
(Alley,
1987),
(Price,
1987
work-related
Fink,
stress
1987)
(Bunge,
expectations
1987)
and
satisfaction of ethnic minority librarians (Squire,
1991).
Baker and Sandore
(1991)
considered
Maslow'
hierarchy
relation
to the
rapid
pace
institutional and technological change in libraries.
Building on their earlier
1A In n rIlr-llrl r w r rwi ir TC Pllilr lmA
I-W~rn rt l r ~rf-^ n -l/Ir~-
r& AIal
50
with starting all over, possibly to satisfy beginning or basic job security needs"
(p. 43).
change
They concluded,
rather
than
however, that it is the uncertainty and turbulence of
specific individual
events,
such
as the
introduction
new
technologies
into
libraries,
which
have
caused
ambivalence
and
insecurity and lowered the reported job satisfaction of librarians.
Studies Using the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
The
Minnesota
Satisfaction
Questionnaire
been
used
in several
studies related to librarians.
One of the first studies to use the instrument was
a short
longitudinal
investigation
which
data
pertaining
to vocational
needs and
job expectations were collected
prior to subject entry into work
environments with data on
vocational need, environmental reinforcers and
job satisfaction collected after subjects had been working at least six months
(D'Elia, 1975).
Job satisfaction was determined to be a function of both need
gratification and expectation fulfillment.
A later study (D'Elia,
1979) found
two
factors
related
supervision
(human
relations
and
ability
utilization) to be most related to satisfaction.
The level of general
job satisfaction showed no significant difference
for university catalogers or reference librarians in a study that used the long-
form MSQ, although some specific areas, such as
"variety," "compensation,"
or "working conditions" did show substantial differences (Chwe, 1976; 1978).
Additional studies using the MSQ concluded bibliographers were more
satisfied
than non-bibliographers on intrinsic satisfaction
(Swe,
1981/1982),
was
associated
with
satisfaction
while
participation
continuing
difference was determined
(Nzotta,
1985).
Autonomy
decision-making
opportunities were more important in predicting job satisfaction than gender
(Rockman,
1984
1985/1986)
factors
related
to superior-subordinate
relations
(supervision) were significantly related
to general
job satisfaction
(Swasdison,
1989/1990).
Conclusion
Controversy surrounds the study of librarian personality as well as that
the job satisfaction
academic librarians.
No study was found
which
combined an exploration of personal characteristics,
such as work behavior
type,
with
satisfaction
results.
Such
a study
would
appear
to be of
potential interest to graduate schools of library and information science as
they select students for admission and to academic institutions as they recruit
and
hire
librarians.
The
entire
process
recruitment,
selection,
compensation and retention of manpower in an occupation is of interest in
any study of the socialization of professions (Schmidt and Hunter, 1979) and
tudy may be of benefit in this area.
Finally, the study has the potential to expand current understanding of
work
behavior
type
studying
a population not previously
included
MPPP studies.
Summary
This review
of the
literature includes
information on
theories of job
, nl W n^ r. V/1%^ aN^ &- at I^lk n ,. C-. n4 n. -i A st. a n4 an ...
r" t- ""r /*<<- EI- ^ %
librarians.
The following chapter outlines how work behavior type and job
satisfaction were explored in this study.
CHAPTER mI
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
Organization of the Chapter
The design and methodology of the study are described in this chapter.
It contains an explanation of the research problem,
the research population
and procedures,
which include data collection, instrumentation and
statistical
treatment.
Statement of the Research Problem
The problem this study investigated was to relate two well-established
theories
about
atisfaction/dissatisfaction
library
work
environment.
The
first
theory
(Herzberg,
1966;
Herzberg,
Mausner,
Snyderman,
1959)
suggests
that
satisfaction
relates
a set of
work
environment conditions called "motivators"
and job dissatisfaction relates to
a different
set of
work
environment
conditions
called
"hygienes."
The
second
theory
(Nickens,
1984
Bauch
, 1981)
suggests
that workers
related
differently to the same work environment and that their different reactions
are predictable by the Marcus Paul Placement Profile scores.
In this context,
the following questions guided the study:
What a
ire the
work
behavior
types
academic
librarians
-- -
w
...
__
factors
derived
from
a factor
analysis
MSQ
show
characteristics of motivators and hygienes?
Do the different work behavior type scores of academic librarians
in Florida, as measured
by the MPPP
relate differently to the
motivator and hygiene scores derived from the MSQ?
Population
The majority
of potential subjects in
the sample population
were the
1993
Florida members of a national organization, the Association of College
Research
Libraries
a division
American
Library
Association.
Additional members of the subject pool were the members of the Academic
Caucus
Florida
Library
Association
1993.
Membership
professional
organization relevant to academic librarianship
was
the initial
criterion for inclusion in the subject pool.
This yielded 350 potential subjects.
The
subjects
retained in
sample
group
consisted
of individuals
currently employed as professional librarians in academic libraries in Florida.
Academic libraries were defined
as those in
post-baccalaureate institutions
(community or junior college, college, university or special library connected
with
a post-baccalaureate
institution).
Only
those
individuals
holding
Master'
degree in Library Science (MLS) or an appropriate equivalent degree
were
included
analysis
data.
Although
academic
librarians
increasingly hold additional subject-related graduate degrees,
an accredited
MLS is the usual required degree for entry into the profession (Robbins,
1990).
Procedures
55
reporting forms, described as appropriate for distribution through the mail.
Instrument
packets
were
numerically
coded
eliminate
personal
identification but to permit correlation of responses.
Study participants who
wished to receive a printed profile reporting their work behavior type were
instructed to put their names on the MPPP form.
Following the distribution
of the MPPP reports and before the analysis of data, responses were recorded
with a second numbering scheme to ensure confidentiality.
The national office of the Association of College and Research Libraries
(ACRL)
provided
researcher
with
mailing
labels
ACRL
members
living
in Florida.
Mailing labels
for members
Academic
Caucus of the Florida Library
Association were provided by the state office of
organization.
cover
letter
(Appendix
explaining
study
requesting participation and assuring confidentiality for participants was sent
to the 350 individuals who constituted the subject pool, along with an MPPP
form,
an MSQ
form
a demographic
form
which
supplemented
demographic
section
MSQ.
A stamped
envelope
addressed
to the
researcher was included for ease of return.
Those contacted
were asked to
reply within one week.
Approximately two weeks after the first mailing, a
second letter requesting participation was sent to non-respondents (Appendix
Along with
personal reminders
for individuals
who
could
be readily
contacted
telephone or
electronic mail,
a second
reminder
letter,
sent
approximately two months after the initial mailing,
was distributed
to non-
respondents.
This
final
mailing
included
a second
complete
instrument
packet.
These three mail contacts completed the data collection sequence.
describing the theoretical basis of the MPPP profile,
thanking them for their
participation
including
their
personal
profile
(Appendix
Finally,
participants who wished to learn more about the results of the study or who
had
individual
questions
were
encouraged
to contact
researcher
separate
letter
or message.
Some
questions
were
answered
immediately;
those requesting information
concerning results were retained in a file for
later response.
Instrumentation
The
study
based
on two
constructs.
The first
construct is
work
behavior
type.
Marcus
Paul
Placement
Profile
(MPPP)
was
used
measure work behavior type. The
job satisfaction/job dissatisfaction.
second construct addressed in the study is
The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
(MSQ) was used to measure the second construct.
Marcus Paul Placement Profile
MPPP
was
designed
to describe
individual
work
behavior
patterns of people for the purpose of matching individuals and jobs.
It can be
used in an educational setting to facilitate the job placement of students and
in a business setting as an aid in the recruitment, placement and assignment
of personnel.
It may also be used as an element in the development of work
teams by assisting team members to understand and appreciate different work
behaviors
as a training
(Bauch,
1981).
long
as the
work
environment
stable,
work
behavior
patterns
are s
table
over
time.
individuals exhibit all
thP wnrk
hphavior nattPrnms
to .cnmlP cp1rpp hbult nnp
corresponded
to primary emotions which could be assigned
to one of four
categories:
dominance,
inducement
submission
and
compliance.
addition, Marston determined behavioral traits for each of the four categories.
Statistical confirmation of these traits was provided by Cattell (1948) and Geier
(1967).
Bauch
(1981) and Nickens (1984) drew on this research base in the
development of the MPPP as a tool which could increase understanding of
work behavior.
A more complete discussion of the theoretical basis of the
MPPP is included in Chapter II.
Theories
form
related
an additional
to management,
basis for
the MPPP
placement a
In addition
career
the work of
counseling
Argyris
(1964),
Blake and Mouton (1964) and McGregor (1960), who were instrumental
in integrating humanistic principles into the work place,
were incorporated
into the design of the MPPP with the intent of developing an instrument that
would
increase
understanding
work
behavior
employer
employee alike.
The terminology used in the MPPP is
positive or neutral.
This reflects the philosophy of Bauch (1981) who believed that work behavior
traits and types are terms that can be used to increase understanding of work
behaviors rather than as judgments of work behaviors.
Finally,
the terms
used in the profile do not reflect social behavior but reflect work behavior
(Nickens, 1984).
The MPPP can be completed in less than 10 minutes.
Test-
retest reliability is about .98, as reported by Wellstood (1984/1985).
The MPPP consists of 24 sets or "boxes," each containing four forced-
choice
terms
from
which
individual
selects
one
that
most
descriptive of his or her self-perceived
work behavior.
The individual then
category.
An example of an MPPP "box" is illustrated in Figure 8.
Only one
"most" and one "least" choice is made in each of the 24 boxes.
Sample Box
Most
Least
careful
fast
alert
nice
Figure 8.
Illustration of a Marcus Paul
Placement Profile
"Box"
entering
these numbers into a
computer program
that associates
them with a MPPP behavior type score, a profile is developed.
Four independent scores are reported on the profile derived from the
MPPP
The scores relate
to four work
behavior
types: energizer, inducer,
concentrator and producer.
that extends from -15 to +1
The 4 independent scores are plotted on a scale
At the center of the scale is the norm score, zero.
This allows for easy observation of the relationship of each individual score
to the norm as well as to each other score.
The scores are scaled, a graph with
the scores
plotted
on it is produced
, following the graph,
a narrative
description of the behavior associated with the score of best fit is provided. In
addition, an interpretation of the behavior associated with the relative scaled
* XN
* L
*.c
* i
*
^ 0
O u
'S
AD
.0
8 .8
tl: N-i
ow5
(B 1-i
60
The four terms listed in the profile represent the four primary work
behavior types.
The highest score of these four is the individual's
type of best fit" (Nickens,
1984, p.
"primary
The description of the four primary
types, as they would be included in a report of a profile, are included below.
Energizer
type
worker:
These
workers
are actively
engaged
getting results.
They are assertive, choosing a direct approach as they pursue
goals.
High
type
workers
are impatient with
detail
, desiring
a direct
answer and action from associates.
improving the work processes.
Concentrator (C) type worker:
in orderly ways, resisting distractions
to the organization, showing great p
They are creative and have many ideas for
Normally, the 'C' types apply their skills
. They are steady workers and are loyal
,atience. They are systematic, effective
and help to maintain moderation in tense situations.
Inducer (I) type worker:
These people involve others as they pursue
their objectives.
They
are sensitive
to needs of their associates, and share
optimistic outlooks as they influence others.
They are good at using group
processes to accomplish goals, being able to clarify ideas for themselves and
others.
They place
more emphasis on
people and
interpersonal
relations
than on their organization.
Producer (P) type worker:
follow procedures,
Producers
guidelines, or standards.
trive for quality as they carefully
They can support their decisions
and actions with irrefutable documentation. Producers expect clear directions
but they can be relied on to meet their deadlines, follow orders and carry out
their assignments with precision.
the work of John Nickens, a program
was devised
which allows the words
selected as "most"
or "least" in the 24
"boxes" on the MPPP response sheet to
be entered into a microcomputer with results analyzed and a profile printed
almost immediately.
In addition to classroom use, the MPPP lends itself to
use in career development workshops or training sessions.
Reliability
and
validity
instrumentation
important
considerations
in any
decision
use a
particular measure.
"Validity
reliability refer to different aspects of a measure'
believability.
Judgments of
validity answer the question:
Is the instrument an appropriate one for what
needs
to be
measured
And
reliability
indicators
answer:
Does
instrument yield consistent results
(Henerson, Morris & Fitz-Gibbon,
1987
133).
Further,
impossible for a measuring instrument to be reliable
without being valid. However
(Ary, Jacobs & Razavieh, 1985,
r, it cannot be valid
226).
unless it is first reliable"
"So if one demonstrates a satisfactory
level of validity
at least internal reliability must be assumed"
(Nickens,
1984,
P. 14).
With
reliance on
a sound
theoretical
basis
MPPP
reflects
validity called face validity.
The statistical procedures that were employed to
obtain the 96 MPPP "most/least" adjectives and to associate them with work
behavior type, although not discussed in detail here, also provide evidence of
reliability and validity.
In addition, a study of 96 Santa Fe Community College career education
students demonstrated that 88.4 percent of the students, after analyzing their
own responses to the MPPP
, rated the accuracy of the analysis components as
in a criterion measure are rarely reported in the literature.
"This high degree
of congruence between
students'
perceptions of their work behavior and the
descriptions provided by the MPPP suggests that the MPPP is sufficiently valid
helping college students understand
their work behavior"
(Nickens,
The MPPP also has been shown to have predictive validity when used
career
planning.
Glenn
(1982/1983),
Wells tood
(1984/1985)
Olson
(1988/1990) and Barber (1989/1990) studied work behavior types as they relate
to job satisfaction, attrition, specific vocations,
perception of individuals in
leadership
(1982/1983),
positions
occupational
stressors.
According
to Glenn
. significant relationships were found between (MPPP) work
behavior types and areas of job satisfactions.
Additionally, specific areas of job
effectiveness were found
to be significantly related
to work behavior type.
These findings were consistent with expectations ..
" (p. ix).
Glenn concluded,
in order
maintain
maximum
effectiveness
and
worker
satisfaction, employees
need
to be placed
jobs which
meet
their
needs
degree
structure,
autonomy,
supervision,
feedback, and contact with co-workers.
One way to understand
these various needs
to have knowledge of individual
work
behavior types and personality functions.
(p. 135)
Wellstood
(1984/1985) further reported
"results indicate that work behavior
type relates to overall and to specific aspects of job satisfaction
MPPP]" (p.
Supervisors
and
managers
could
make
valuable
use
knowledge about work behavior
types as
well as
the types of
. [on the
w
63
The results of these and other studies have shown that information on work
behavior types can be useful in a variety of work-related areas, including job
satisfaction and career planning.
The face validity of the MPPP
the concurrent validity demonstrated
through research at Santa Fe Community College and additional research at
University
of Florida
have demonstrated
that the MPPP "is
valid as a
career advisement tool for helping people understand
their work strengths,
and for suggestions for writing effective letters of reference for individuals
seeking job placements"
(Nickens,
1984,
Although all
theoretically
valid
uses of the instrument have not yet been researched,
the MPPP "was
designed to be utilized as a tool in the business setting for recruiting, job
placement,
work
assignment,
team
building,
training"
and,
accordingly, it was chosen for this study
. Use of the MPPP in this study also
provided insight into another theoretically valid use for the instrument.
Minnesota Satisfaction Ouestionnaire
The
Minnesota
Studies
Vocational
Rehabilitation
or the
Work
Adjustment Project, are a series of research studies which began in 1957
which have led
to the development of a
indicators of work adjustment.
variety of instruments
Minnesota
Satisfaction
to measure
Questionnaire
(MSQ) is a measure for one of the primary indicators of work adjustment.
allows
attainment
a more
individualized
assessment of worker
satisfaction, that is,
two individuals may express similar amounts of general
satisfaction with their work but the reasons for this satisfaction may be very
D'Elia used the short form MSQ and Chwe used the long form MSQ.
Chwe
argued strongly that, because of the repetitive format of the long form, the
short form was more appropriate for subjects, like academic librarians,
high levels of education (Chwe, 1978, p. 50).
with
Finally, the short form MSQ was
considered more appropriate for
distribution
though
the mail
as it can
completed
about
10 minutes,
thus
making it more likely
that potential
subjects would participate in the study.
directions on the first page. Although i
The MSQ is self-administering with
no time limit is imposed, respondents
are encouraged to complete responses quickly.
The
short
form
MSQ,
consisting
questions
that
measure
dimensions
satisfaction
(ability
utilization
, achievement,
activity,
advancement, authority
compensation, co-workers, creativity, independence,
moral
social
values,
service
policies
social
practices,
status,
recognition,
supervision-human
responsibility,
relations,
security
supervision-
technical,
variety and working conditions) was selected for this study.
Each
item
refers
a possible
motivator
or hygiene.
The
first
items
measured
a Likert-type scale
which
asks
respondents
to indicate
their
degree
agreement
with
a statement
related
to that
dimension
satisfaction.
Five response
possibilities
(strongly
agree,
agree,
undecided,
disagree or strongly disagree) are provided for each item.
The responses are
weighted
assigned
from
one
a maximum
five
descending
points
order
while strongly
so that
strongly
disagree is
agree
assigned
minimum
one
point.
The
21st
dimension,
general
satisfaction
interpreted
an aggregate
scores
dimensions
measured
1
w
w
Figure 10.
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire Scales
The most meaningful way to interpret the MSQ is to use the most appropriate
norm group for the individual and then to use percentile scores for each scale
obtained for the norm group.
The most appropriate norm group would be
one that corresponds exactly to the individual'
As norm groups are not
available
occupational
areas
a similar
norm
group
which
shares
characteristics such as tasks performed
conditions and so on, may be used.
, type of supervision, physical working
If no appropriate norm group has yet
been developed,
the MSQ raw scores can be converted
to percentile scores
using Employed Disabled or Employed Non-disabled norms.
raw scores for all scales can be interpreted by ranking them. TI
Finally, MSQ
hs will indicate
areas of relatively greater or lesser job satisfaction (Weiss et al.,
4-5).
When
used with an individual subject,
percentile scores of 75 or greater generally
represent a high level of job satisfaction, scores in the 26 to 74 percentile range
indicate average satisfaction, and a percentile score of
or lower indicates a
low level of satisfaction.
The current MSQ manual reports norms for seven occupational groups
for the short-form MSQ.
Based on educational requirements for employment
66
Validity for the short-form MSQ is inferred, in part, from validity for
the long-form as the short-form is based on a subset of the long-form.
That is,
the short-form MSQ was developed by choosing 20 items, each representative
of one of the 20 scales on the long-form MSQ.
frequently with a respective scale were selected.
Those items correlating most
A group of 1,460 employed
individuals completed
the measure.
A factor-analysis of the resulting data
yielded
two factors, intrinsic satisfaction and
extrinsic satisfaction.
The
items that loaded high on one factor constitute the Intrinsic Scale.
factors
constitute
Extrinsic
Scale
and
items
constitute
General
Satisfaction Scale.
This allows for scores on all three scales.
The construct validity of the MSQ is primarily
derived from the fact
that it
generally performs according to
theoretical
expectations.
Construct
validation
studies
other
questionnaires,
based
on the
Theory
of Work
Adjustment and developed
through
Work Adjustment Project, support
this conclusion.
Additional evidence supporting the validity of the short-form MSQ is
provided by studies of group differences by occupation and studies on the
relationship between job satisfaction and satisfactoriness.
Occupational group
differences in mean satisfaction scores for the seven available norm groups
were statistically significant for each of the three scales.
The Hoyt reliability
coefficients for each norm group and each short-
form scale were reported to be, in general,
ranged from
Extrinsic Scale
high.
.84 (assemblers and electrical assemblers) to
range
was
(electrical
For the Intrinsic Scale, they
(engineers).
! (engineers
assemblers)
The stability of scores obtained from
the short-form MSQ is currently
being studied but no data have,
as yet, been reported.
However, data on the
General Satisfaction Score for the long-form MSQ show correlations of .89 for
a one-week
test-retest
period
a one-year
test-retest
interval.
Stability for the General Satisfaction
Score of the
hort-form MSQ may be
inferred from these data.
Research on both forms of the MSQ continues,
focusing on improving
psychometric
characteristics
the scales
expanding
the range of
dimensions which may be measured by the MSQ.
A 30-scale form has been
developed and is being tested.
Finally
researchers using the MSQ agree to
report results to be used in the development of new norm tables.
Results of
this study will be reported to the Work Adjustment Project at the University
of Minnesota for possible use as another
occupational
norm
group for the
short-form MSQ.
Statistical Procedures
The data gathered for the
tudy were analyzed
within the context of
each of the research questions set forth in Chapter I.
The
Marcus
Paul
Placement
Profile
was
analyzed
using
MPPP
software.
The procedures for the analysis are well-validated.
Scaled scores
were calculated and scores were plotted on a graph.
scores
subjects
were
then
analyzed
computer
determine the number of subjects in each
divided into male and female sub-groups.
type,
with
these numbers further
The percentile of type by total and
done which resulted in loadings on three, four and five factors.
The three
factor
results
loading was selected.
. The purpose of thi
e facto:
Promax rotation
r analysis was t
was used
to report the
o allow responses
to be
characterized as motivators or hygienes.
The mean score and standard deviation for each of the 20 items on the
MSQ,
mean
score
standard
deviation
Intrinsic
Scale,
Extrinsic
Scale
General
Satisfaction
Scale
and
mean
score
standard deviation for each item and the three scales by type were calculated.
The CANCORR Procedure was used to produce canonical correlations.
This is a technique used for analyzing the relationship between
two sets of
variables
each
which
can
contain
several
individual
variables.
The
canonical
correlation
procedure was
used
to determine
the relationship
work
behavior
type
scores
revealed
MSQ
to the
motivators
hygienes identified through the factor analysis of the MSQ.
Summary of Design and Methodology
This chapter outlined the procedures of the study.
Data were collected
from academic librarians employed in Florida for the purpose of determining
relationship
satisfaction.
among
The
work
Marcus
behavior
Paul
type,
Placement
work
Profile
environment
and
and
Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire were selected as the instruments used to measure
each
these
areas.
Data
treatment
methods
utilized
were
frequency
distribution, factor analysis and canonical correlation.
presents the results and analysis of these data.
The following chapter
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND
ANALYSIS OF DATA
The
problem
study was
to determine
relationship of
theory that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are affected by motivators
hygienes
to the
theory
that
motivators
hygienes
are perceived
differently by different work behavior types.
In addition
to describing the
sample population, the chapter contains the results of the study and provides
answers to the research questions posed in Chapter I.
Description of the Samele Povulation
The sample population in this study was comprised of 350 individuals
selected from
the membership of
Association of College and Research
Libraries, a division of the American Library
Association, and the Academic
Caucus of the Florida Library
Association.
A limited number were members
other
divisions
American
Library
Association.
participants were members of one or more of these Associations.
prospective
The criteria
for the use of data received from respondents included current employment
in an academic library in Florida and holding a Master in Library Science
(MLS)
degree
an appropriate
other
degree
example,
Master
Librarianship,
Master
Media
or Master
Information
Science.)
S. .. .. a I -"- I 1 I
-1
I
An academic library was defined as a library in a
institution
post-baccalaureate
, including community or junior college, college or university, as
well as special libraries connected with post-baccalaureate institutions.
Thus,
respondents worked in all levels of higher education and in both large and
small schools.
ranged from
Correspondingly, the libraries in
which they were employed
those with a staff of five or fewer to those employing
100 or
more.
However, the commonality of employment as an academic librarian
was viewed as more basic to the selection of the study sample than individual
differences in institution or specific professional responsibilities.
All subjects
for whom data
were used
were currently
employed academic librarians in
Florida
who
showed
an orientation
commitment
to the
profession
through
active
participation
one
more
major
professional
organizations.
subjects
contacted
258 or
percent responded.
One
response option requested subjects to return blank forms if they did not wish
to be included in the study.
A group of 15 people, or 4.3 percent of the subject
pool,
selected this option.
Another
16 individuals, or 4.6 percent, responded
that they were retired.
An additional
18 people,
percent, responded that
they were not eligible and reported a variety of reasons including having left
the profession, having left Florida for employment in another state, returned
to graduate school or not presently being employed in an academic library.
Finally
seven respondents,
or 2.
0 percent, returned incomplete or invalid sets
of measures
were eliminated from
the data
analysis.
addition,
individuals, or 26.3 percent, did not respond in any way.
The data analysis
.
Table 1
Response to Survey
The data on
the academic librarians obtained from the demographic
section
MSQ
the supplementary
data
form
are summarized
Female subjects accounted for 71.78 percent of the usable responses,
or 145 of 202 subjects, while the
of the usable responses. The 1l
had been in their current position for
57 male respondents constituted 28.22 percent
largest percentage, 39.6 percent or 80 subjects,
2 to 5 years while 22.28 percent, or 45
subjects had been in their current position for 6 to 10 years.
Over 85 percent of
the subjects had been in the profession for 6 years or more, a sufficient time to
evaluate their employment, attain promotions, or change specific jobs one or
more
times.
This
corresponds
with
that
over
percent
subjects were aged 40 and over.
included in
Thus, the individuals whose responses were
the data analysis were, for the most part, mature, experienced
Type of Response N Percent
Usable Responses 202 57.7
No Response 92 26.3
Other 18 5.1
Retired 16 4.6
Blank Forms Returned 15 4.3
Invalid Responses 7 3.0
Total 350 100.0
Table
employed in a community college,
while 20, or 9.0 percent, were employed at
a 4-year college.
All subjects
held
an appropriate
masters degree for
their
particular
position
with
or 27
percent, holding one or more additional masters
degrees and
or 1
38 percent, holding a Ph.D. or
Ed.D. degree with the
Ph.D. predominant in this latter group.
Research Ouestions
Question
What are
the work
behavior types
(WBT) of
academic
librarians
Florida
as measured
Marcus
Paul
Placement
Profile
(MPPP)?
The
frequency
distribution
work
behavior
types
found
among
academic librarians in Florida is shown in
Table 3.
Overall
, 45.54 percent, or
92 individuals were concentrators.
Of these, 65 were female (44.83 percent of
145 female subjects) while
or 47.37
percent, of the
male subjects
showed concentrator as their dominant work behavior type.
The second largest group were producers with
individual
or 38.12
percent of the total sample.
Sixty females, or 41.38 percent of their total,
males
those
, or 29.82 percent of their total, constituted
individuals
with
either
concentrator
or producer
this group.
as their
Together,
dominant
work behavior type totaled 167 or 83.66 percent of the total sample of 202.
By comparison, previous studies of members of a variety of professions
showed quite different results.
Glen (1982/1983) sampled vocational educa-
tinnal amrninictratnrc
ShP fnlind
47 nprro rnn rpnc pnfrfnrc
nnprrpn t nrn-
/ |
73
Table 2
Characteristics of the Participating Academic Librarians
Percent
Characteristic
Gender
Male
Female
28.22
71.78
Age
30-39
40-49
50-59
2.48
13.86
46.53
5.45
No response
Education Level
100.00
Master in Library Science
or appropriate equivalent
Additional Masters degree
Doctoral Degree
Ph.D.
Ed.D.
Other advanced degree or certification
Years in Current Position
27.23
9.40
3.00
3.96
15.84
39.60
22.28
14.36
6-10
11-20
21-30
5.94
No response
Total Years in Profession
6-10
11-20
21-30
12.87
14.36
36.63
27.23
5.94
No response
y- S--_. T----------- -_ .
/r T.. ... s
Table 3
Work Behavior
Twpe by Gender
Row variable: work behavior type as percentage of same sex respondents
Column vari;
Cell format:
able:
work behavior type as percentage of same type respondents
frequency/ percent: total/percent: row/ percent: column
Gender Concentrator Energizer Inducer Producer Total
Female 65 9 11 60 145
32.18 4.46 5.45 29.70 71.78
44.83 6.21 7.59 41.38
70.65 64.29 57.89 77.92
Male 27 5 8 17 57
13.37 2.48 3.96 8.42 28.22
47.37 8.77 14.04 29.82
29.35 35.71 42.11 22.08
Total 92 14 19 77 202
______45.54 6.93 9.41 38.12 100.00
Poston (1988/1989) sampled nursing faculty and found that 39.13 percent were
concentrators, 36.96 percent producers, 17.39 percent inducers and 6.52 percent
energizers.
Olson
(1988/1990)
studied
college
placement officers.
group
found
percent
to be
concentrators
percent
producers,
percent inducers and
percent energizers.
Barber (1989/1990) examined the
work
behavior
types of
Cooperative
Extension
Service
mid-managers
found
them
to be
more
evenly
divided
among
four
categories.
I-f 7
with
75
According to the MPPP user manual, approximately 60 percent of the general
population are either concentrators or producers, with producers dominating.
this study it was found
concentrators
producers,
that academic librarians are
concentrators
almost 84
are predominant.
percent
Female
academic librarians are even more predominantly producers or concentrators
percent),
contrast,
again
male
with
concentrators,
academic
librarian
about 45
are 77
percent,
percent
dominating.
concentrators
producers, although concentrator is still the largest group, accounting for 47
percent of the male subjects.
Those who are categorized
as concentrators and
producers are most
likely to work to maintain their organization in its present form.
They tend
to follow the rules and regulations of the organization and can be relied upon
to do the job assigned
to them.
In contrast, energizers and inducers,
who
represent about 20 percent each of the general population,
tend to seek to alter
system
and
to effect
change
their
organization
(Bauch,
1981).
Energizers are represented in this study by 6.93 percent of the subjects (6.21
percent of the females and 8
percent of the males) while inducers account
for 9.41 percent of the subjects or 7.59 percent of the females and 14.04 percent
males.
Thus,
concentrators
and
producers
are represented
substantially higher numbers among academic librarians than in the general
population and
the results on
MPPP
support the
theory
that different
work behavior types are attracted to different professions.
Question
What
are the
motivators
and
hygienes
perceived
academic
librarians
Florida
as reported
on the
Minnesota
Satisfaction
76
study generates three scores; that is, an Intrinsic score, an Extrinsic score and a
General Satisfaction, or
Total score.
Higher scores by area or a higher total
score imply a greater degree of job satisfaction either with job content or job
context
or in general.
Further,
scores
individual
items are presented
allowing for more specific analysis.
Table 4 presents the mean score and standard deviation for each item.
The scores are presented for each work behavior type along with the score for
the total sample population.
As shown on Table 4, inducers had the lowest mean score on 11 of the
items,
producers
lowest mean
score
on 7 of
items
while
energizers had the lowest mean score on one item.
had identical mean scores on one item.
Inducers and producers
On 19 of 20 items, concentrator mean
scores were above the total mean; producer mean scores were below the total
mean on all 20 items.
The lowest individual mean score per type was item 13
for concentrators (pay and amount of work),
for advancement) and item 12
item 14 for energizers (chances
(how company policies are put into place) for
inducers and producers.
Although
the mean score differences are not particularly
large, they
reveal a pattern.
Concentrators, the largest number of subjects, are consis-
tently more satisfied
with all aspects of their position,
followed
closely by
energizers,
the smallest numbers of subjects.
Inducers and producers consis-
tently show the lowest mean scores per item
(relationship of co-workers with each other),
with
the exception of item
the only item on which one of
these two types did not show the lowest mean score.
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78
Table 5 presents means and standard deviations for the Intrinsic score,
the Extrinsic score and the Total score by type and for the entire sample. The
means for concentrators and energizers are both above the total mean while
the means
for inducers and
producers
are below
total
mean.
This
consistent for both Intrinsic and Extrinsic scores.
Table 5
Mean Score and Standard Deviation for Intrinsic,
Extrinsic and Total Scores
on the Minnesota Satisfaction Ouestionnaire (Short Form)
Note:
Intrinsic score range 12-60 for 12 items; Extrinsic score range 6-20 for 6
items; Total score range 20-100 for 20 items.
The
lowest
mean
score
intrinsic
items
, or those
related
to job
content, is that of the producers while the lowest mean score for extrinsic, or
context,
items
that of
inducers.
Overall,
concentrators
Work Intrinsic Items Extrinsic Items Total by Type
Behavior Type Mean Std. Dev. Mean Std. Dev. Mean Std. Dev.
Concentrator 49.68 6.54 19.16 5.1 76.23 11.94
Energizer 50.64 7.04 18.43 5.49 75.86 13.24
Inducer 48.47 6.21 15.89 4.05 71.05 9.03
Producer 46.65 7.24 17.39 4.97 70.78 12.55
Total: All Groups 48.48 6.94 18.13 5.07 73.64 12.25
79
In Herzberg's two-factor theory of job satisfaction/job dissatisfaction,
motivators correspond to Maslow'
higher-order needs.
They are intrinsic or
content
factors,
such
achievement,
recognition,
advancement,
responsibility and the inherent interest of the work itself.
are present in a job,
When these factors
they act as satisfiers because they have a positive effect on
employee job satisfaction and
they may
function
to provide the individual
with personal psychological growth.
Hygienes correspond to Maslow'
lower-order needs and are extrinsic,
or job context factors,
such as pay, security
supervision and physical working
conditions.
When
absent
from
these
items
linked
dissatisfaction.
The MSQ provides an Intrinsic, or job content, and an Extrinsic, or job
context, score.
As indicated on
Table 4
the intrinsic items on
the MSQ are
numbers
16 and
With
the exception of 2
(freedom to work alone) and 8 (opportunity for
teady employment), two of
Herzberg'
hygienes,
these items all correspond to Herzberg motivators.
extrinsic, or job context items, on the MSQ are numbers
13, 14 and 19.
The first 4 and
19 correspond
to Herzberg hygienes.
The exception is
(advancement on
current job).
Numbers
(working
conditions)
(relationships of co-workers) correspond to Herzberg hygienes.
they contribute to an overall general score.
Table 6 shows factor loadings on the MSQ.
In the MSQ,
Factor I includes items 5
1, 19,
13 and 8.
These all correspond
to Herzberg hygienes, or job
context
item
with
exception
item.
- -
number
8 steadyv
, 7, 8,
, 6, 1
I _
___lr~_ _I
80
Table 6
Factor Loading on lob Satisfaction Items from the Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire (Short Form)
MSQ
Item Number
N=202
Factor I
0.70157
0.69630
0.59752
0.57007
0.47441
0.45858
0.38671
0.30778
-0.00164
-0.04466
-0.02269
16444
10487
31146
11126
00205
15959
29114
12019
16303
Factor II
-0.13713
-0.22041
0.09730
0.21418
0.11522
0.16487
0.29018
0.10257
0.63928
0.55972
0.52428
0.47476
0.47332
0.44883
0.42545
-0.22953
0.16746
0.16151
0.26234
0.26466
Factor m
0.11158
0.11110
-0.03583
-0.13415
-0.08747
0.18808
-0.12743
0.06334
-0.10148
0.29152
-0.02346
0.20258
0.15867
-0.13036
0.37365
0.71932
0.53505
0.44019
0.41843
0.40113
Notes: Factor I (items 5, 6, 12, 19, 18, 17, 13, 8); Factor II (items 9, 11, 10, 20, 4,
14, 3); Factor HI (items 2, 1, 7, 15, 16); Variance explained by: Factor I, 2.639930;
Factor II, 2.306518; Factor I, 1.759460.
Factor II includes items 9
motivators, or job content items.
1, 20, 4, 10, 14 and 3 which are all Herzberg
They are all part of the MSQ Intrinsic score,
except number
14 (opportunity for advancement).
This item shows a loading
of 0.449 in Factor II and a loading of 0.311 in Factor I.
Factor III includes items
I .*,
and 16.
They all form part of the
MSQ Intrinsic score and, except for item
2 (opportunity to work alone) are all
Herzberg motivators.
Thus
, the factors derived from a factor analysis of the MSQ do show
characteristics of motivators and hygienes.
all related
to Herzberg hygienes.
Factor
Factor I includes eight MSQ items,
II includes seven items which all
relate to Herzberg motivators.
Finally
Factor III includes five items, four of
which are motivators while one is a hygiene.
Question
Do the different work behavior type scores of academic
librarians
Florida,
as measured
MPPP
relate
differently
to the
motivator and hygiene scores derived from the MSQ
In order to analyze the relationship
between scores on the MSQ and
work behavior types,
the technique of canonical correlation
was employed.
Given two sets of variables, a computer analysis finds a linear combination
from each set, the canonical variable,
which leads to the maximization of the
correlation
between
canonical
variables.
This
results
first
canonical
correlation.
"The
coefficients
linear
combinations
canonical coefficients or canonical weights.
It is customary to normalize the
canonical coefficients so that each canonical variable has a variance of one."
(SAS/STAT User'
Guide,
1989
, p. 368).
The procedure then finds a second set
" "
variable is not correlated with all the other canonical
variables of either set
except
(ibid.).
one
corresponding
canonical
variable
opposite
Finally, the first canonical correlation will be at least as large as the
multiple correlation between any variable and an opposite set of variables.
The
correlations
between
individual
items
Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire and the four work behavior types as determined by
the Marcus Paul Placement Profile are shown in Table
The correlations between the four work behavior types and individual
items
on the
MSQ
are weak
with
largest
absolute
value
being
negative
correlation (-0.2772) between Producer and MSQ item four,
"chance
to be somebody in the community."
Following
factor
analysis
procedure
on the
MSQ,
correlations
between work behavior type and the three factors derived from the MSQ were
established.
These are illustrated in Table 8.
Again,
the correlations are weak.
The largest in absolute value is 0.1952 for Concentrator to Factor I (hygiene or
context
items;
elements
MSQ
extrinsic
score).
This
closely
followed
a negative
correlation
(-0.1944)
Producer
to Factor
(motivator or job content items,
elements in the MSQ Intrinsic Score).
The within-set correlations are larger as can be seen in Table 9 with the
absolute
value
being 0.6798
Factor
to Factor
Closely
following is a negative correlation,
-0.6769, for Concentrator to Energizer.
The
canonical
correlations
three
factors
four
work
behavior types are shown in Table 10.
83
Table 7
Simple Correlations Between MSO Items and Work Behavior Types
Table 8
Correlation Between the Three Factors on the MSO and Work Behavior Tvype
MSQ Item Concentrator Energizer Inducer Producer
1 -0.0463 0.0956 0.0728 -0.0715
2 -0.0877 0.0883 0.0464 -0.0809
3 0.0361 -0.2160 0.1254 -0.1169
4 0.0541 0.0746 0.2260 -0.2772
5 0.1145 -0.1086 0.0217 -0.0169
6 0.1042 -0.0989 -0.0402 -0.0536
7 0.1149 -0.0592 0.0799 -0.0625
8 0.0685 -0.0194 0.0828 -0.0769
9 0.1349 -0.0027 0.1739 -0.2259
10 0.0419 0.0256 -0.0338 0.0234
11 0.1853 -0.0225 0.0341 -0.1328
12 0.1703 -0.0821 -0.0553 -0.0094
13 0.1243 -0.0848 0.0349 -0.0438
14 0.1747 -0.1155 0.0577 -0.0050
15 0.1352 -0.0204 0.0129 -0.0867
16 0.1061 -0.0051 0.0596 -0.1197
17 0.1704 -0.0440 0.0124 -0.0994
18 0.1170 -0.1206 0.0662 0.0128
19 0.1767 -0.0808 0.0314 -0.0535
20 0.1478 0.0049 0.1221 -0.2368
Concentrator Energizer Inducer Producer
"Ir-. T A 1019 A 191) l nA flA n nAAn-
84
Table 9
Within-Set Correlations Amon2 the Orikinal Variables
Factors Derived from the MSQ
1.0000
0.6398
0.5987
0.6398
1.0000
0.6798*
0.5987
0.6798*
1.0000
Work Behavior
Types Determined by the MPPP
Energizer
Inducer
Concentrator
Producer
Energizer
Inducer
1.0000
0.0860
Concentrator
Producer
-0.6769*
-0.5249
0.0860
1.0000
-0.2839
-0.6160
-0.6769*
-0.2839
-0.5249
-0.6160
1.0000
0.1599
0.1599
1.0000
Note:
= Largest Within-Set Correlations
Table 10
Canonical Correlations of Factors and Work Behavior
Types
Canonical
Likelihood
Annrox.
Num.
Den
The first canonical
correlation is 0.3078.
The first squared
canonical
correlation is 0.0947
0.0092.
. The probability level for the first canonical correlation is
Thus, the first canonical correlation is significantly different from zero
at the
level.
The
second
third
canonical
correlations
were
considered as probability levels provided no evidence that they are different
from zero.
Table 11
First Canonical Correlational Analysis: Canonical Coefficients
Standardized Canonical Coefficients
MSQ Factors Canonical Variables
1 2 3
I 0.0074 -1.3271 0.2966
II 1.1689 0.4286 -0.8096
III -0.2881 0.6935 1.2111
Work Behavior Type Canonical Variables
1 2 3
Energizer 0.6984 1.0139 1.3896
Inducer 0.7709 0.4893 -0.1832
Concentrator 1.2547 0.0135 1.0727
Producer 0.0106 0.2308 0.6267
Table 12
First Canonical Correlational Analysis: Canonical Structure
Correlations Between MSQ Factor Variables and
________________MSQ Factor Canonical Variables
MSQ Factors 1 2 3
I 0.5287 -0.6377 0.5038
II 0.9778 0.0509 0.2035
III 0.5109 0.1902 0.8383
Correlations Between WBT Variables and
As shown on
Table 11
, the first canonical variable for the MSQ factor
variables
is a weighted difference
FACTOR II (1.1689) and
FACTOR
(-0.2881) with more emphasis on FACTOR II.
The coefficient for FACTOR I is
near zero.
In Table 12
the correlations between FACTORS I
II and III are all
positive.
FACTOR HI is a suppressor variable as its coefficient and correlation
have opposite signs.
the other variables.
A suppressor variable enhances the correlation between
Table
the first
canonical
variable
work
behavior
type
variables indicates
greatest emphasis on
Concentrator (1.2547),
followed by
Inducer (0.7709) and Energizer (0.6984).
zero.
The coefficient for Producer is near
Two of the correlations between work behavior type, as shown in Table
are positive,
Producer,
Inducer
(0.4683)
is negative (-0.6302)
Concentrator
Energizer,
although]
(0.5648)
h near
) while
zero,
one,
is also
negative.
Thus,
work
behavior
type,
Energizer
Producer
suppressor variables.
The
therefore
general
that
interpretation
FACTOR
first
Producer
canonical
as suppressor
correlation
variables
enhance
the correlation
between FACTOR II
and
Concentrator.
Factor
includes seven items which are all Herzberg motivators (job content).
the seven are part of the MSQ Intrinsic Score.
Six of
Concentrators, the largest work
behavior type group, have the highest total mean score, 76.23,
on the MSQ.
The canonical redundancy analysis shows that neither of the first pair
canonical
variables.
variables
The
is a good
cumulative
overall
proportion
predictor
variance
opposite
explained
set of
first
_
, "
The
squared
multiple
correlations
indicate
very
limited
predictive
power.
The first canonical
variable of the FACTORS has minor predictive
power for FACTOR II (0.0906),
less for FACTOR I (0.0322),
and even less for
FACTOR III
(0.0247).
The first canonical
variable of Work
Behavior
Type
shows
almost no
predictive
power
with
highest
correlation,
Producer
(0.0376),
followed by Concentrator (0.0302) and Inducer (0.0208).
Energizer is
almost zero;
was also
the smallest sample group
(n=14),
followed
Inducer (n==19).
In addition
to determining
correlations between
work behavior type
and the 3 factors derived from the MSQ, a second set of canonical correlations
was
established
between
individual
MSQ
items
and
4 work
behavior types.
The correlations
between individual MSQ items and Work
Behavior
Type are shown on Table 13.
with
correlations
displayed
Table
7 and
Table
correlations are weak.
The largest in absolute value is MSQ item
4 (social
status)
to Producer
.2772
followed
MSQ
item
(achievement)
Producer (-0.2368) and MSQ item 4 (social status) to Inducer (0.2260).
The
canonical
correlations
MSQ
items
4 work
behavior types are shown in Table 14.
The first canonical correlation is 0.4457
squared,
0.0824.
it is 0.1986.
Thus,
zero at the
The probability level for the first canonical correlation is
there is some evidence that the correlation is different from
.05 level.
The remaining correlations were not considered further
as probability levels provided no evidence that they are significantly different
from zero.
16 (0.1868),
17 (0.1464) and 20 (0.6094).
The coefficients for items 1, 2,
8, 18
and 19 are near zero.
Table 13
Correlations Between the MSO Items and Work Behavior Type
Table 14
Canonical Correlations of MSO Items and Work Behavior Tvype
Canonical
Correlation
Likelihood
Ratio
Approx.
F
Num.
DF
Den
DF
Pr>F
MSQ Item Energizer Inducer Concentrator Producer
1 0.0956 0.0728 -0.0463 -0.0715
2 0.0883 0.0464 -0.0877 -0.0809
3 -0.0216 0.1254 0.0361 -0.1169
4 0.0746 0.2260 0.0541 -0.2772
5 -0.1086 0.0217 0.1145 -0.0169
6 -0.0989 -0.0402 0.1042 -0.0536
7 -0.0592 0.0799 0.1149 -0.0625
8 -0.0194 0.0828 0.0685 -0.0769
9 -0.0027 0.1739 0.1349 -0.2259
10 0.0256 -0.0338 0.0419 0.0234
11 -0.0225 0.0341 0.1853 -0.1328
12 -0.0821 -0.0553 0.1703 -0.0094
13 -0.0848 0.0349 0.1243 -0.0438
14 -0.1155 0.0577 0.1747 -0.0050
15 -0.0204 0.0129 0.1352 -0.0867
16 -0.0051 0.0596 0.1061 -0.1197
17 -0.0440 0.0124 0.1704 -0.0994
18 -0.1206 0.0662 0.1170 0.0128
19 -0.0808 0.0314 0.1767 -0.0535
20 0.0049 0.1221 0.1478 -0.2368
|
|
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PAGE 142
81,9(56,7< 2) )/25,'$
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HERZBERG'S
MOTIVATOR/HYGIENE THEORY AND WORK BEHAVIOR TYPES
OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS IN FLORIDA
BY
CAROL RITZEN KEM
A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN
PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
1994
Copyright 1994
by
Carol Ritzen Kem
Dedicated to
my mother,
Thelma Summers Ritzen
and
to the memory of my father,
Franklin Wheeler Ritzen
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The development of this work from an assortment of ideas to a
completed project represents the collaborative efforts of several people. My
deep and most sincere thanks are extended to Dr. John Nickens, chairman of
my supervisory committee. I will never forget his willingness to take a
chance on a stranger. He was instrumental in helping me focus my ideas and
shape the project, providing encouragement when I needed a lift and
prodding me to keep working when progress was slow. He has been an
advocate for me and the project, a source of unrelenting support, and an
empathetic mentor. Dr. Nickens exemplifies to me the best qualities of a true
doctoral advisor.
Dr. James Hensel, Dr. David Honeyman, and Dr. Tom Fillmer,
supervisory committee members, have provided advice and expertise critical
to the successful completion of this work. I both acknowledge their assistance
and thank them for it. I am also grateful to Dr. Gordon Lawrence, who first
sparked my interest in "people types."
Dr. John Dixon, CIRCA, provided invaluable recommendations
concerning methods of data analysis appropriate for the study. Brent Coule,
who was initially contacted to provide computer analysis assistance, did that
and more. He became a friend, developed a personal interest in the project,
and patiently discussed statistics with me over a period of several months.
Barbara Blocker took my drafts, insertions, notes, and corrections and
turned them all into a polished and finished product. Her cheerful
willingness to reformat as needed was greatly appreciated, as were her calm
IV
manner and professional expertise, both vital to the completion of the
manuscript. Paula Chain Gebhardt used her exemplary talents to assist me in
the presentation of a professionally edited manuscript.
I am grateful to all the friends and colleagues who encouraged me as I
worked toward the completion of the study. In particular, I thank Pamela
Pasak Sawallis and Dolores Jenkins for their steadfast support and caring
friendship.
Finally, I express my deepest gratitude to my husband, Bill, and our
sons, Reade and Eric. They knew I could and would successfully complete
this project and were unwavering in their love and support throughout the
past several years.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS i v
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF FIGURES x
ABSTRACT xi
CHAPTER
I INTRODUCTION 1
Background and Rationale 1
Statement of the Research Problem 4
Delimitations and Limitations 5
Justification for the Study 6
Definition of Terms 9
General Terms 9
Marcus Paul Placement Profile Terms 10
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire Terms 11
Organization of the Study 12
H REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 13
Organization of the Chapter 13
Job Satisfaction 13
Definition 13
Historical Overview 15
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory of Job Satisfaction 19
Measuring Job Satisfaction 25
Work Behavior Type 27
Definition 27
Industrial Psychology 27
Evolution of Work Behavior Types 28
Marston's Two-Axis Model 31
Clustered Traits 33
Marcus Paul Placement Profile 34
Academic Librarians 39
Personality Studies 39
vi
Job Satisfaction of Academic Librarians 45
Studies Related to Maslow and Herzberg 48
Studies Using the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire 50
Conclusion 51
Summary 51
HI DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 53
Organization of the Chapter 53
Statement of the Research Problem 53
Population 54
Procedures 54
Data Collection 54
Instrumentation 56
Marcus Paul Placement Profile 56
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire 63
Statistical Procedures 67
Summary of Design and Methodology 68
IV RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF DATA 69
Description of the Sample Population 69
Research Questions 72
Summary of Results and Analysis 92
V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS 93
Research Problem and Procedures 93
Research Questions 96
Research Question One 96
Research Question Two 97
Research Question Three 99
Research Question Four 99
Implications 101
Work Behavior Type 101
Job Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction 104
Recommendations for Further Research 106
APPENDICES 108
A Letter to Subjects 108
B Follow-up Letter 110
C Letter Accompanying Profiles 112
REFERENCES 114
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 126
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1 Response to Survey 71
2 Characteristics of the Participating Academic Librarians 73
3 Work Behavior Type by Gender 74
4 Mean Score and Standard Deviation by Item,
MSQ Short Form 77
5 Mean Score and Standard Deviation for Intrinsic, Extrinsic,
and Total Scores, MSQ Short Form 78
6 Factor Loading on Job Satisfaction Items,
MSQ Short Form 80
7 Simple Correlations Between MSQ Items and
Work Behavior Types 83
8 Correlation Between the Three Factors on the MSQ and
Work Behavior Type 83
9 Within-set Correlations among the Original Variables 84
10 Canonical Correlations of Factors and
Work Behavior Types 84
11 First Canonical Correlational Analysis:
Canonical Coefficients 85
12 First Canonical Correlational Analysis:
Canonical Structure 85
13 Correlations Between the MSQ Items and Work
Behavior Type 88
14 Canonical Correlations of MSQ Items and
Work Behavior Type 88
viii
15 Second Canonical Correlational Analysis:
Canonical Coefficients 89
16 Second Canonical Correlational Analysis:
Canonical Structure 91
IX
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 18
2 Bockman's Traditional Model of Job Satisfaction 19
3 Herzberg's Two-Factor Attitude Model 20
4 Mars ton's Two-Axis Model 32
5 Marston's Behavioral Description of the Four
Primary Emotions 36
6 Geier's Revised List of Traits Which Correspond
to the Four Primary Emotions 37
7 Marcus Paul Placement Profile List of Traits 38
8 Illustration of a Marcus Paul Placement Profile "Box" 58
9 Sample MPPP Profile 59
10 Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire Scales 65
x
Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School
of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HERZBERG'S
MOTIVATOR/HYGIENE THEORY AND WORK BEHAVIOR TYPES
OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS IN FLORIDA
By
Carol Ritzen Kem
December, 1994
Chairman: John M. Nickens
Major Department: Educational Leadership
The problem this study investigated was to relate the Herzberg theory
that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are affected by motivators and
hygienes to the theory derived from Nickens and Bauch that motivators and
hygienes are perceived differently by different work behavior types.
The specific questions were as follows: (a) What are the academic
librarians work behavior types as measured by the Marcus Paul Placement
Profile (MPPP)? (b) What are the motivators and hygienes perceived by
academic librarians as reported on the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
(MSQ)? (c) Do factors derived from a factor analysis of the MSQ show
characteristics of motivators and hygienes? and (d) Do the different work
behavior type scores of academic librarians in Florida, as measured by the
xi
MPPP, relate differently to the motivator and hygiene scores derived from the
MSQ?
A group of 350 potential subjects was identified through membership
in one or more appropriate professional organizations. The MPPP and the
MSQ were administered to determine work behavior type and to measure
intrinsic, extrinsic, and total job satisfaction.
The potential subjects were mailed MSQ, MPPP, and supplementary
demographic forms along with an explanatory cover letter. The letter sent
with the instruments promised the participants the results of their individual
MPPP type analyses, if they indicated that they wished to receive them. A
summary of study results was also offered to participants. A total of 202
subjects provided usable response sets.
Participants were unevenly divided among the four work behavior
types, a finding consistent with most previous studies. Concentrators
predominated, followed by producers, with inducers and energizers
accounting for fewer than 10 percent each of the total sample.
In general, participants were satisfied with their jobs although
differences between groups were apparent. A strong relationship between
intrinsic, or job content, scores was found for concentrators. A weak to
moderate relationship between some individual MSQ items and producers
was found.
Implications for academic librarians include the use of work behavior
type and factors in job satisfaction or job dissatisfaction for recruitment to the
profession, job placement, development and training, academic library
management style, and effective team building.
Xll
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
For the majority of adults in the United States today, work is a central
factor and defining characteristic of life. More than at any other period in our
history, paid employment fills a large portion of time for both women and
men. Accordingly, it is even more important to realize that:
In order that people may be happy in their work, these three
things are needed: They must be fit for it. They must not do too
much of it. And they must have a sense of success in it.
(Ruskin, 1851)
Two of the three things Ruskin set forth as necessary for happiness in one's
work are major elements in this study—namely, work behavior type, or
"fit,"—and job satisfaction, or "sense of success."
Background and Rationale
Research into work behavior and job satisfaction has been conducted
since the early years of the twentieth century when industrial psychologists
such as Frederick Taylor (1911) began to show an interest in job satisfaction
studies. Although Taylor's major research interest was in using time and
motion studies to increase productivity, he did mention the importance of
human factors in completing tasks (Wellstood, 1984/1985). About 20 years
later, Elton Mayo conducted studies into work productivity and observed that
positive human relationships, which were important to workers, could lead
to greater job satisfaction and, ultimately, to increased productivity (Mayo,
1933). A. H. Maslow investigated elements of job satisfaction and developed a
1
2
theory based upon an ascending hierarchy of human needs, beginning with
the lowest order, basic physiological need, and extending through the highest
level, self-actualization. Although lower-order needs had to be satisfied
before higher-order needs began to assume any importance, when a need was
met, it no longer served as a motivating force (Maslow, 1943).
Maslow's work was a foundation for Herzberg (1966; Herzberg,
Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959) who developed a two-factor theory of job
satisfaction (Glenn, 1982/1983; Wellstood, 1984/1985). Two types of work
variables, the motivators and hygiene factors, were theorized to influence job
satisfaction and job dissatisfaction. Motivators, which included achievement,
recognition, advancement, responsibility, and interest in the work itself were
classed as satisfiers as they exerted a positive effect on workers' output. The
motivators corresponded to the higher-order needs in Maslow's ascending
hierarchy of needs.
Analogous to Maslow's lower-order needs, hygiene factors included
pay, security, supervision and physical working conditions. The absence of
these factors was limited to job dissatisfaction. It is critical to recognize that
Herzberg et al. (1959) emphasized that the presence of a particular hygiene
factor did not necessarily lead to job satisfaction and that the lack of a
motivator did not automatically create job dissatisfaction. That is, "the
opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction, it is an absence of job
satisfaction. Conversely, the opposite of job dissatisfaction is not job
satisfaction, it is an absence of job dissatisfaction" (Olson, 1988/1990, p. 32).
Since the first publication of Herzberg's theory, hundreds of studies
based upon it have been conducted with virtually every level of worker
represented. Since 1984, more than 60 dissertations have been written that
relied, at least in part, upon Herzberg for a theoretical base. Previous studies
(for example, Thomas, 1977; Kozal, 1979; Burr, 1980/1981) have investigated
3
aspects of Herzberg's theory among various groups including academic
administrators. Additional studies (Glenn, 1982/1983; Wellstood, 1984/1985;
Olson, 1988/1990; Poston, 1988/1989; Barber, 1989/1990) added the application
of the Marcus Paul Placement Profile (MPPP) in their studies of medical
technologists, vocational educational administrators, college placement
officers, faculty and deans in colleges of nursing and cooperative-extension
service mid-level managers. Three studies (Plate & Stone, 1974; Dahlstrom,
1982; Hamshari, 1985/1986) investigated aspects of the theory in relation to
professional librarians. Plate and Stone used the Herzberg "critical incidence
technique" (Herzberg, 1966) in an analysis of job incidents. The study
population included American and Canadian librarians attending
motivational workshops held in conjunction with professional meetings.
They concluded that the theory applied with as much force to librarianship as
to other occupations studied. Hamshari compared the job satisfaction of
professional librarians in the technical and public service departments in 20
academic libraries in Jordan. Dahlstrom investigated the motivation for
participating in continuing education. He administered a questionnaire to a
random sample of 550 librarians throughout the southwestern United States
and identified 20 factors that were classed as motivators for participating in
continuing education. The seven items that were shown to be most
significant were identified as Herzberg motivators.
The theory of work behavior types suggests that basic differences in
personality traits may have an impact upon work behaviors. Investigators
from Wundt in the 1890s to Nickens in the 1980s have added to the body of
research in this area. One important contribution was that of W. Marston
(1927; 1928), who emphasized the emotions of normal people. In the world of
work, a theory based upon "normal" individuals would appear to be
particularly useful.
4
Marston's work and the research of Nickens (1984) and Bauch (1981)
led to the development of the Marcus Paul Placement Profile (MPPP). A tool
designed to determine work behavior type in order to facilitate correct job
placement, the MPPP is intended for use in both educational and business
environments. Different personality types excel at different types of work
(Holland, 1959). If this construct is accepted, then a successful matching of
jobs and personnel can be expected to increase satisfaction in the worker, lead
to greater productivity and more adequately fill the needs of both the
organization and the individual (Nickens, 1984).
Previous studies have investigated the personal characteristics and the
personality type of professional librarians (Bryan, 1952; Douglass, 1958;
Morrison, 1961; Clift, 1976; Agada, 1984/1985; David, 1990/1991). Numerous
studies have investigated aspects of job satisfaction among librarians (for
example, D'Elia, 1975; Chwe, 1976; Miniter, 1975/1976; Rockman, 1985/1986).
However, no research studies were found that specifically related job
satisfaction and work behavior types among librarians, particularly librarians
employed in institutions of higher education. Thus, a study of the work
behavior types of academic librarians has the potential to add a new
dimension to knowledge in the area of work behavior and job satisfaction as
well as in the area of characteristics of academic librarians.
Statement of the Research Problem
The problem this study investigated was to relate the Herzberg theory
that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are affected by motivators and
hygienes to the theory derived from Nickens and Bauch that motivators and
hygienes are perceived differently by different work behavior types. The
following questions guided the study:
5
1. What are the work behavior types of academic librarians in Florida
as measured by the Marcus Paul Placement Profile (MPPP)?
2. What are the motivators and hygienes perceived by academic
librarians in Florida as reported on the Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire (MSQ)?
3. Do factors derived from a factor analysis of the MSQ show
characteristics of motivators and hygienes?
4. Do the different work behavior type scores of academic librarians in
Florida, as measured by the MPPP, relate differently to the
motivator and hygiene scores derived from the MSQ?
Delimitations and Limitations
In answering the preceding questions, the following delimitations were
observed:
1. The study was limited to librarians currently employed in
professional positions in post-secondary institutions in Florida.
2. The study was limited to librarians holding the Master of Science in
Library Science (MLS) or an appropriate equivalent academic degree.
3. The study was limited to librarians with membership in one or
more of the following professional organizations: the Association
of College and Research Libraries, the American Library
Association, or the Florida Library Association.
4. Information about work behavior type was limited to that
measured by the Marcus Paul Placement Profile.
5. Information regarding job satisfaction and dissatisfaction was
limited to those facets measured by the short-form Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire.
In addition, the following limitations were inherent in this study:
1. By returning study forms, academic librarians volunteered to
participate in this study. There is no assurance that these
volunteers are representative of the total population of academic
librarians in Florida or academic librarians in general. Therefore,
results may not be generalizable to other populations of academic
librarians.
6
2. Since this study was limited to academic librarians, it is not possible
to generalize these findings to other librarians or to other
occupational types.
Tustification for the Study
According to Moran (1989), in a paper tracing the development of
academic libraries from 1939-1989,
academic libraries have evolved from relatively small, self
sufficient institutions to large, multifaceted organizations
electronically interconnected and linked in ways not yet
envisioned fifty years ago. The librarians who work in these
institutions . . . are called upon to have knowledge of processes
and to provide services unforeseen in 1939. (p. 25)
However, as the profession of librarianship has matured and the
demands upon librarians, particularly those in academic institutions, have
become more complicated, requiring higher levels of education and training,
15 professional schools of library science have closed since 1978 (Paris, 1990)
and the number of new entrants to the profession is declining. With only 52
institutions now offering graduate training in library science and/or
information science and a number of states and large metropolitan areas with
no library schools, it is logistically more difficult in the United States to
become a librarian than a lawyer (there are 180 law schools) or a physician, as
students can select from 142 medical schools (Manley, 1991). Some in the
profession believe these negative factors can be balanced in part by the more
diverse backgrounds of those individuals who do enter the profession and by
the advanced levels of educational attainment exhibited by at least a
significant minority of those who receive a graduate degree in library science.
However, Heim and Moen (1992) state that "in spite of intense recruitment
initiatives the library and information profession continues to be one for
7
which the modal entrant is a white female in her mid-thirties who majored
in English, education or history" (p. 102).
The basic studies on the personality of the librarian date back to the
period from 1952 to 1961. Only one substantive study has been completed
within the last 10 years (David, 1990/1991). Although studies of job
satisfaction among librarians abound, some are of negligible value because of
simplistic statistical analyses, poorly designed research methods or
questionable population samples. Research into the work behavior type of
librarians is generally only addressed as a minor factor in studies designed for
other purposes.
Of particular interest to the proposed study is the finding reported by
Lynch and Verdin (1983) that "new entrants . . . into the profession report
some of the lowest levels of [job] satisfaction" (p. 445). They find this
troublesome and suggest several possible explanations for the finding,
including problems of accommodation to working within an organizational
context, difficulty with work-flow demands, and the nature of the "entry-
level work for professionals in large research libraries [which] may be more
routine and non-professional than librarians expect" (p. 446).
Studies of job announcements for academic library positions reveal
increasingly stringent educational requirements including advanced
academic degrees, subject specialization and language capability (Creth, 1989).
According to Moore (1981), a glut in subject Ph.D.'s and master's degrees led
many academic libraries to add either a requirement or a preference for these
degrees to job descriptions reasoning that, given the market, they could
probably get them. However, the actual duties for available positions as
outlined in advertisements are often similar to those listed some years ago.
In other words, academic librarians, in particular those new to the profession,
may still be assigned routine and sub-professional duties. Those recruited to
8
the profession may expect that their advanced academic credentials and
subject specialization will translate into more professional responsibilities
and the lack of a match between expectation and reality may lead to job
dissatisfaction or, in extreme cases, to highly trained individuals prematurely
leaving the profession. Reporting on a study of librarians 10 years after their
graduation, White (1990) wrote: "The graduates . . . report that . . . they
thought they knew what their preference for both type of library and type of
work was before they enrolled in library school. By the time they graduated, a
significant percentage had changed their minds" (p. 61). More importantly,
White continues "almost half . . . end up doing something different from
what they originally thought they would do" (ibid). Further, in terms of
specialized preparation, recent graduates appeared to be selected for first
professional positions almost casually, with employers later complaining that
new hires did not possess sufficient specialized skills (White and Mott, 1990).
Given the ever increasing costs of recruitment and training, it would seem to
be in the best interest of academic libraries to attempt to determine what
aspects of work will provide satisfaction for librarians or, at a minimum, at
least to avoid those aspects that cause dissatisfaction.
According to Geier (1979), people in working situations will exhibit
specific qualities and patterns of behaviors. If individuals are provided with
information about their particular work behavior styles and are placed into
jobs that require and encourage those styles, the opportunity for job
satisfaction and success in employment will be increased. In addition, the
possibility that an employee may become frustrated and leave a specific job or
even a profession may be less if the correct "fit" between employee and
employment is made.
With schools of library science closing, recruits to the profession
declining and the demand for educated, motivated employees increasing in
9
academic libraries it appeared that a study combining the theory of work
behavior type and the theory of job satisfaction would be of great potential
value to the profession. Such a study has not been conducted among
librarians in general or among academic librarians in particular. Research in
this area could be of use in recruitment for the profession and in the
assignment of responsibilities to positions in the profession. Further, this
study may add to current knowledge of work behavior type by studying a
population that has not previously been studied in this manner.
Definition of Terms
General Terms
Academic librarian refers to a professional librarian currently
employed in an academic library in Florida.
Academic library refers to the library of a post-secondary institution
(community or junior college, college or university) in Florida.
American Library Association is the major professional organization
for librarians in the United States.
Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) is a division of
the American Library Association with approximately 11,000 members
nationwide.
Factors refers to any of the six motivators or eight hygienes descriptive
of those job facets which may contribute to job satisfaction or job
dissatisfaction (Herzberg et al., 1959).
Florida Library Association is a professional organization in Florida
with members representing all types of libraries in the state and all levels of
employment in libraries.
Hygienes refers to factors which contribute to an employee's
dissatisfaction and are related to the job context portion of work. They
10
include, for example, company policies, working conditions, supervision and
administration and co-worker relationships.
Tob content refers to factors such as achievement, advancement,
recognition, responsibility and the work itself. When present in a job, they
are related to job satisfaction.
Tob context refers to factors such as pay, security, supervision, and
physical working conditions which, when absent from a job, are linked to job
dissatisfaction.
Tob dissatisfaction refers to feelings associated with "the built-in drive
to avoid pain from the environment, plus all the learned drives which
become conditioned to the basic biological needs" (Herzberg, 1966, p. 28).
Tob satisfaction is the positive effect derived from those factors which
most often contribute to higher needs (Herzberg et al., 1959).
Motivators refers to factors which contribute to employee satisfaction
and are related to the job content portion of work. They include, for example,
achievement, responsibility and recognition.
Professional librarian refers to an individual holding the master's
degree in library science from a program accredited by the American Library
Association. That is, "the master's degree is the minimum educational
requirement for employment in a professional program" (Robbins, 1990, p.
41).
Marcus Paul Placement Profile Terms
Marcus Paul Placement Profile (MPPP) is an instrument developed by
Bauch (1981) and Nickens (1984) which is designed to measure work behavior
types. The four types are:
11
Energizer type (result oriented), a work behavior type which describes
an individual who is typically assertive, direct, impatient with detail,
interested in getting results and quite creative in the work situation.
Inducer type (people-oriented), a work behavior type which indicates
an individual who is sensitive and optimistic and who places more emphasis
on interpersonal relations and getting things accomplished within the group
rather than on the organization itself.
Concentrator type (technically oriented), a work behavior type which
indicates an individual who is a loyal, steady worker and who tends to be
patient, systematic, and effective.
Producer type (quality oriented), a work behavior type which indicates
an individual who strives for quality, follows guidelines carefully, and
supports his/her work and decisions with documentation.
Work behavior type refers to a description and categorizing of an
individual's general qualities and predisposing behavior traits as they relate
to the work situation and are defined by the Marcus Paul Placement Profile.
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire Terms
Tob satisfaction score refers to a participant's score on the Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire. The short-form MSQ yields the following three
scores, extrinsic, intrinsic and general.
Extrinsic Scale is the job context score on the short-form MSQ
determined by summing the individual scores of 6 of the 20 items on the
measure.
Intrinsic Scale is the job content score on the short-form MSQ
determined by summing the individual scores on 12 of the 20 items on the
measure.
12
General Satisfaction Scale is a score determined by summing the
individual scores on all 20 of the items on the short-form MSQ.
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSP), or the short-form MSQ,
is a 20-item measure consisting of statements about various aspects of a
person's job which an individual is asked to rate on a 5-point scale with
responses ranging from "not satisfied" through "extremely satisfied." The
scales utilize descriptors derived from the work of Herzberg.
Organization of the Study
The remainder of the study is organized into four chapters. A review
of the literature is presented in Chapter II. Included are major areas of
research and related literature relevant to job satisfaction and job
dissatisfaction, and the development of the theory of work behavior type.
The chapter concludes with a review of the literature on these topics as they
relate to academic librarians.
The design and methodology of the study are presented in Chapter IIL
Research design, population, data collection, instrumentation and procedures
are addressed.
Chapter IV contains the results and analysis of the data collected from
the Marcus Paul Placement Profile, the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
and the demographic and career information questions. The data specific to
each question presented in the study are addressed and discussed.
Chapter V includes a summary of the study, conclusions about the
findings, and recommendations for additional research.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Organization of the Chapter
This review covers three areas. The first section presents an overview
of research on job satisfaction. The second section reviews the research and
theories leading to the development of work behavior types and the Marcus
Paul Placement Profile. The final section provides a synthesis of the research
on job satisfaction, personality type and work behavior and career
development as related to academic librarians.
Tob Satisfaction
Definition
According to Chwe (1976), more than 5,000 articles, books, and
dissertations were written on the subject of job satisfaction from the 1930s to
the mid-1970s. As the effective management of human resources is one of
the most important tasks for any organization, it is not surprising to find such
a large and varied volume of research focused on this subject. If the activities
of employees are to contribute to the realization of organizational goals,
successful management, including direction and motivation, is important.
Thus, research on employees in a variety of work situations has been
conducted for almost a century. A particularly significant topic of personnel
research involves the job satisfaction of employees.
There is no universally accepted definition of job satisfaction (Locke,
1976). However, Locke (1969) earlier proposed a possible definition, stating
13
14
job satisfaction is the pleasurable emotional state resulting from
the appraisal of one's job as achieving or facilitating the
achievement of one’s job values, and job dissatisfaction is the
unpleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of
one’s job values or as entailing disvalues. (p. 316)
Most researchers determine their own operational definition
(Gruneberg, 1979). For example, Wanous and Lawler (1972) list nine different
operational definitions, each related to a different theoretical basis of job
satisfaction including need fulfillment, equity and work values while
Bockman (1971) described the traditional theory of job satisfaction as being the
total body of feeling an individual has about his or her job. Porter and Steers
(1973) defined job satisfaction as the "sum total of an individual's met
expectations on the job" (p. 167) while Smith, Kendall, and Hulin (1969)
defined the concept as "feelings or affective responses to facets of the
situation" (p. 6). According to O'Reilly and Roberts (1975), individual traits
referred to as "personality" are obvious antecedents to job satisfaction. A
particularly relevant definition for this study is that of Davis (1977) because he
related the degree of job satisfaction to the fit between an employee and a
particular job. Davis stated that
job satisfaction is the favorableness or unfavorableness with
which employees view their work. It results when there is a fit
between job characteristics and the wants of employees. It
expresses the amount of congruence between one's expectation
of the job and the rewards that the job provides, (p. 74)
It is important to distinguish the term job satisfaction from morale. Job
satisfaction is an individual state of mind and refers to the response of an
individual to the job whereas morale is the feeling of commitment to and
oneness with a group and group well-being (Blum, 1956; Gruneberg, 1979). It
is also necessary to distinguish the term motivation from job satisfaction.
The terms are often used interchangeably and they are closely linked but they
are not synonymous (Byars & Rue, 1979). The factors which determine job
15
satisfaction and those that determine motivation are different; thus,
"satisfaction reflects an employee's attitude toward the job while motivation
refers to a drive to perform" (Glenn, 1982/1983, p. 62).
Historical Overview
Interest in job satisfaction and the quality of work life is not a recent
phenomenon. Davis (1971) asserted concern with job satisfaction was evident
in industry over 175 years ago. Initially, psychologists studied job satisfaction
as a factor in increasing the productivity of workers. Frederick Taylor (1911)
introduced the principles of scientific management to work settings by
applying the results of time and motion studies. He simplified and
compartmentalized work tasks in an effort to increase efficiency and,
correspondingly, the productivity of workers. Taylor also called attention to
the importance of the human element as a factor in job success. According to
Nauratil (1989), "Taylorism," or scientific management, was widely accepted
in libraries in the early years of the 20th century. The philosophy was
advocated by Melvil Dewey who even urged librarians to "keep a watch or
clock hanging before you" (p. 44).
In 1927, Elton Mayo (1933) began a series of experiments which
stimulated the development of the Human Relations School in
organizational psychology and occupational sociology. The studies, named
for the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago,
involved the manipulation of various physical conditions, such as light,
temperature control, rest, work hours and payment systems in an attempt to
improve productivity. Mayo found that productivity increased in unexpected
ways. Even with adverse physical conditions, for example, productivity was
observed to increase. Mayo concluded that human relationships were more
important to workers, especially the feelings of workers toward each other
16
and attention from supervisors (Glasgow, 1982). The studies, which ended in
1932, were later speculated to be invalid (Gruneberg, 1979). However, they are
of significant historical interest because of the importance of the Human
Relations School in psychological research. According to this body of
thought, "satisfied workers are more productive than dissatisfied workers,
and job satisfaction is influenced by . . . human relationships . . . within work
organizations" (Glasgow, 1982, p. 5).
Two important early studies of job satisfaction took place during the
1930s. Kornhauser and Sharp (1932) studied a group of female factory workers
and isolated "character of supervision" as the major factor related to job
dissatisfaction. Further, they found that negative feelings caused by poor
supervision influenced other areas. Another early study of job satisfaction
involved 500 teachers who were questioned about different aspects of their
jobs. Hoppock (1935) analyzed the 100 most satisfied and the 100 least satisfied
responses and concluded that job satisfaction consisted of many factors, the
presence of which in a work situation led to satisfaction whereas their absence
led to job dissatisfaction. Based on his research, he formulated a theory
suggesting that satisfaction and dissatisfaction form a continuum.
Following World War II, interest in job satisfaction research developed
into an interdisciplinary approach with some emphasis on problem-solving
and the relationship between employee satisfaction and performance
(Brayfield & Crockett, 1955).
In 1957, Frederick Herzberg and his associates published an important
review of the literature of job satisfaction research. Herzberg et al., challenged
Hoppock's view which was still in vogue that job satisfaction is a continuous
variable. Rather, a two-factor theory with the causes of job satisfaction
distinct from the causes of job dissatisfaction was proposed. Job satisfaction
research became increasingly sophisticated during the 1960s as survey
17
methodology was improved. With a variety of additional related issues such
as the psychological characteristics of workers under investigation, the decade
of the 1970s saw job satisfaction research well established as an
interdisciplinary field. Many major theories of job satisfaction were
developed between the 1950s and the early 1980s. "They include need-
hierarchy theory, two-factor theory, need-fulfillment theory, value-
fulfillment theory, equity theory, group theory, and perception theory"
(Glasgow, 1982, p. 9). These theories have been classified as either content or
process theories (Campbell, Dunnette, Lawler, & Weik, 1970). Content
theorists were interested in determining those factors related to the
motivation of an individual to work while process theorists attempted "to
explain job satisfaction in terms of the interaction between the individual's
needs and what the job actually offers" (Wellstood, 1984/1985, p. 15).
Abraham Maslow's (1943) general theory of motivation, the need-
hierarchy theory, is a major content theory and has been used as a frame of
reference for many job satisfaction studies. Maslow stated that man has five
basic categories of needs arranged in an ascending hierarchy of five levels.
Lower-order needs were (a) physiological needs, (b) safety and security needs,
and (c) social (affection) needs. Higher-order needs were (d) the need for
esteem, including the need for mastery and achievement along with
recognition and approval and (e) the need for self-actualization, that is, the
desire to be all one is capable of being. Although lower-order needs had to be
met before higher-order needs assumed importance, the satisfaction of a need
removed it as a motivator. (Figure 1)
18
SELF-
ACTUAL¬
IZATION:
to become
everything that
one is capable of
becoming
(measure up to one's
own criteria for success)
ESTEEM NEEDS:
self-respect, positive
self-evaluation, prestige
(dependent on others)
BELONGINGNESS AND LOVE NEEDS:
love, affection, friends, companionship
(dependent on self and others)
SAFETY NEEDS:
protection from the elements
(dependent on self and others)
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS:
hunger, thirst, sex, etc.
(dependent on self)
Figure 1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Note. Adapted from An application of the refomulated (Herzberg) theory of
job satisfaction to selected administrative affairs staff in the Florida State
University System, by A. P. Kozal, 1979.
Maslow's theory concerned the relationship of each need level to the
state of satisfaction or dissatisfaction for other need levels. For example, if a
lower-level need is satisfied, an individual's interest will switch to the next
higher-level need; that is, when basic physiological needs are satisfied, safety
needs will become a greater concern. Man's ultimate goal is self-actualization
19
or the ability to become all one is capable of becoming (Maslow, 1943). Thus,
the need-hierarchy theory is based on the idea that lower-order needs are
never totally satisfied. Deprivation of satisfaction over time causes the needs
to evolve into strong motivators. In contrast, higher-order needs must be
continuously sought and are seldom completely satisfied. In an article
entitled "The Herzberg Controversy," Bockman (1971) discussed the
traditional theory or the total body of feeling an individual has about a job,
which includes both job-related and environment-related factors. The feeling
moves along a single continuum between satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
Neutrality, a condition in which an individual is neither satisfied or
dissatisfied, is mid-way on the continuum. (Figure 2)
Job Factors
Negative or Absent Positive or Present
Dissatisfaction Neutrality Satisfaction
Figure 2. Bockman's Traditional Model of Job Satisfaction
Deprivation of pay, recognition, or some other factor will move an
individual toward the negative end. The improvement of a factor, such as
salary, will cause positive movement. Finally, if the presence of a variable in
the work situation leads to job satisfaction, one could logically expect that its
absence would lead to job dissatisfaction.
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory of Tob Satisfaction
In their book entitled The Motivation to Work, Herzberg, Mausner, &
Snyderman (1959) developed the concept that certain factors are more
frequently associated with feelings of satisfaction while other factors are
20
associated with feelings of dissatisfaction. Herzberg and his associates,
employing the critical incident method developed by Flanagan (1954), tested
the concept on 203 male engineers and accountants in Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania. From these data, Herzberg et al. (1959) developed the theory of
job attitudes called the Two-Factor Theory or the Motivator-Hygiene Theory.
Since 1959, the Two-Factor Theory has been used extensively in job
satisfaction research. Its emphasis on the contribution of psychological
growth to job satisfaction and the recognition that opportunities for
psychological growth can be found within work itself are of particular
importance in the development of general job satisfaction theory. The Two-
Factor Theory states that motivation does not exist on a continuum, as
postulated by Hoppock, but consists of two continua, job satisfiers or
motivators, and job dissatisfiers, or hygienes. (Figure 3)
(Satisfiers/
Satisfaction Motivators) No Satisfaction
(Dissatisfiers/
No Dissatisfaction Hygienes)
Dissatisfaction
Figure 3. Herzberg's Two-Factor Attitude Model
Cummings and El Salmi (1968) divided the Herzberg theory into the
following concepts:
1. Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are unrelated and are not
opposite one another on a single bipolar continuum. Instead, they
are separate and distinct continua (See Figure 3 for Herzberg's Two-
Factor Attitude Model).
21
2. The opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction; it is no job
satisfaction. Conversely, the opposite of job dissatisfaction is not job
satisfaction, it is no job dissatisfaction.
3. Job satisfaction is determined by the feeling the employee has
towards the content of his job or job environment. Content job
factors are classified as: achievement, recognition, advancement,
responsibility and work itself. These factors were mentioned most
often by those interviewed as factors that gave the most satisfaction.
4. Job dissatisfaction is determined by the feelings the individual has
toward the context of his job. Context factors include: company
policy and administration, technical aspects of supervision,
interpersonal relations with supervision, salary and working
conditions. These factors were mentioned most often as causing the
employee the most dissatisfaction. (Cummings & El Salmi, 1968, p.
133)
Motivators such as achievement, recognition, advancement,
responsibility and interest in the work itself were intrinsic factors which,
when present in a job, acted as satisfiers with a positive effect on employee
productivity. Of the motivators, achievement was the strongest, followed by
recognition. The motivators corresponded to Maslow's higher-order needs.
The six motivators or satisfiers as defined by Herzberg et al. (1959) and
Herzberg (1966) follow:
1. Advancement refers to actual changes in the status or position of an
individual in an organization. It also includes the probability of or
hope of advancement.
2. Achievement refers to all events that lead toward realization of the
worker's personal objectives (successful completion of a job, finding
a solution to a problem, or seeing the results of one's own work).
The definition also includes the opposite—failure to achieve.
3. Recognition comprises acts of praise and/or notice (positive
recognition), or blame (negative recognition), toward the employee
from the work environment (a peer, professional colleague,
supervisor, or the general public).
4. Work itself denotes the actual doing of the job or the tasks of the job
as a source of good or bad feelings. It also refers to the opportunity
to complete an assigned unit of work.
22
5. Responsibility relates to authority and includes those sequences of
events in which the worker mentioned satisfaction derived from
being given responsibility for his own work or the work of others,
or being given new responsibility. Also included were those
incidents in which there was a loss of satisfaction from lack of
responsibility.
6. Possibility of Growth refers to growth in specific skill areas as well as
growth in status which would enable the individual to move
onward and upward in a company. This factor also encompasses
the lack of opportunity for growth. (Herzberg, 1966, pp. 193-198)
Hygiene factors included pay, security, supervision and physical
working conditions and corresponded to Maslow's lower-order needs. They
were extrinsic to the job and, when absent, linked to dissatisfaction. Herzberg
and his associates made it very clear, however "that the presence of a hygiene
factor doesn't automatically produce job satisfaction and the absence of a
motivator doesn't necessarily lead to dissatisfaction" (Wellstood, 1984/1985, p.
16).
The eight hygienes or dissatisfiers as defined by Herzberg (1966) are as
follows:
1. Salary includes all sequences of events in which some type of
compensation (wage or salary increase) plays a role. Unfulfilled
expectations of a salary increase are also included in this category.
2. Working conditions refers to the physical conditions of work and
the facilities available for performing the work (adequate tools,
space, lighting and ventilation).
3. Supervision-technical includes those events in which the
competence or incompetence of the supervisor is the critical factor.
Statements concerning a supervisor’s willingness or unwillingness
to delegate responsibility or his willingness or unwillingness to
instruct are included.
4. Interpersonal relations involve actual verbalization about the
characteristics of the interaction between the worker and another
individual. Three categories of interpersonal relations are specified:
those involving subordinates, those involving peers and those
concerning supervisors.
23
5. Company policy and administration includes factors in which some
overall aspect of the company is involved. Herzberg (1959)
identified two types: the first concerns the adequacy or inadequacy
of a company's organization and management; the second involves
the positive or negative effects of the company's personnel policies.
6. Status refers to the sequence of events in which the respondent
specifically mentioned that a change in status affected his or her
feelings about the job (attaining a larger office, use of a company car
or having a personal secretary).
7. Personal life involves situations in which some aspect of the job
affects the individual's personal life in such a manner that the
respondent's feelings about his job are affected (a family-opposed
job transfer).
8. Tob security refers to signs of job security (continued employment,
tenure and financial safeguards). Feelings alone of security or
insecurity were not accepted. (Herzberg, 1966, pp. 193-198)
Herzberg stated that there could be situations in which a motivator
could act as a hygiene and vice-versa (Herzberg et al., 1959). After 12 studies
involving 1,685 employees, however, Herzberg (1966) concluded that 81
percent of all factors related to job satisfaction were motivators while 69
percent of all factors related to job dissatisfaction were hygienes.
Salary was difficult to classify in the original study as it appeared in
reports labeled low satisfaction as well as in reports of high satisfaction.
Researchers concluded that the former reports were related to employees who
felt they deserved higher pay or that increases were not based on performance
while the latter were from employees who felt increases were based on
performance and that their own salaries were fair (Herzberg et al., 1959).
Herzberg's theory has been very popular. Since first published,
numerous studies have been conducted with every level of worker,
supervisor and manager in this and other countries (Burr, 1980/1981). There
has been widespread support for the theory but it has also been sharply
criticized.
24
Burr (1980/1981) listed 13 studies conducted over a 10-year period in the
field of education alone. Between 1982 and 1991, at least 56 dissertations have
dealt to some extent with Herzberg's theory. Of these, approximately 15 were
related to higher education faculty or staff. Only three were related to
librarians (Dahlstrom, 1982; Hamshari, 1985/1986; Timmons, 1991).
Initially, criticism of Herzberg's theory focused on the narrow range of
jobs investigated, the absence of reliability and validity data, the lack of a
measure for overall job satisfaction and the use of only one job attitude
measure for overall job satisfaction (Burr, 1980/1981). Although replication
studies rendered most of these criticisms moot (Herzberg et al, 1959), other
critics claimed that the "theory is bound by its methodology; that only one
method, the critical incident method, could provide empirical support for [it]"
(Burr, 1980/1981, p. 38). Herzberg refuted this criticism by stating that "the fact
that another method of testing motivation-hygiene theory has not supported
it is meaningless unless it can be demonstrated that such a method is valid
and appropriate. One cannot logically employ ... a typing skill test to
measure IQ and use the results to evaluate a theory of intellectual
development" (Herzberg, 1976, p. 246).
In Work and Motivation. Vroom (1964) wrote that the results of the
critical-incident method were due to defensive processes within the
individuals interviewed. Further, he criticized the methods used as neither
correlational nor experimental.
Although there has been strong reaction to Herzberg's Two-Factor
Theory, it has led to the analysis of specific work characteristics in studies of
job satisfaction as well as increased awareness of the value of examining job
satisfaction (Gruneberg, 1979).
25
Measuring Tob Satisfaction
Typically, job satisfaction has been measured by an objective, a
descriptive or a projective survey. Objective surveys generally contain
questions with pre-determined responses while descriptive surveys are more
subjective, allowing for unstructured replies through open-ended questions.
Projective surveys are devised by psychologists or psychiatrists to assess
mental health and are not normally used in a work setting (Glenn, 1982/1983;
Wellstood, 1984/1985). The critical incident technique used by Herzberg was a
form of descriptive survey. Thomas (1977), Kozal (1979), and Burr (1980/1981)
used modified versions of the technique in their studies of community
college, college, and university administrators and staff members. Glenn
(1982/1983) and Wellstood (1984/1985) both reported the lack of many
standardized measures of job satisfaction and selected the Job Descriptive
Index (JDI) to measure job satisfaction and dissatisfaction for their studies of
vocational education administrators and medical technologists, respectively.
Olson (1988/1990) used the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) in
his study of college placement officers.
In a comparison of the JDI and the MSQ, Robert Guión wrote in The
Eighth Mental Measurements Yearbook that both were the result of research
in the 1960s, had an underlying rationale, provided reliable scores, showed
evidence of construct validity and were extensively normed (p. 1680).
Campbell et al., (1970), in reviewing the JDI, stated that "nowhere do [the
authors] mention . . . Herzberg's two-factor theory and the notion of intrinsic
vs. extrinsic factors. It would have been interesting to see how they relate
their taxonomy to Herzberg's" (p. 540). Guión (1978), in evaluating the MSQ,
wrote that it "gives reasonably reliable, valid, well-normed indications of
general satisfaction at work and of 20 aspects of that satisfaction, collapsible
into intrinsic and extrinsic components" (p. 1679).
26
The MSQ is one of several measures developed in conjunction with
the Minnesota Studies in Vocational Rehabilitation or, as they are better
known, the Work Adjustment Project. The studies began in 1957 with two
objectives,
the development of diagnostic tools for assessing the work
adjustment 'potential' of applicants for vocational
rehabilitation, and the evaluation of work adjustment
outcomes. These primary goals are embodied in . . . the Theory
of Work Adjustment [which] uses the correspondence or lack of
it between the work personality and the work environment as
the principal reason or explanation for observed work
adjustment outcomes (satisfactoriness, satisfaction, and tenure).
. . . Work adjustment is predicted by matching an individual's
work personality with work environments. (Weiss, Davis,
England & Lofquist, 1967, p. v)
The MSQ is a paper and pencil inventory. It is designed to measure an
employee's satisfaction with his or her job. The MSQ provides more specific
information on the aspects of job satisfaction than do more general measures.
It is available in both long and short form and is suitable for distribution
through the mail, as it is self-administering with directions on the first page.
A detailed description of the MSQ is provided in Chapter III.
D'Elia (1975; 1979) was the first investigator to use the MSQ to measure
the job satisfaction of librarians. Chrisman (1975), Chwe (1976; 1978), and
Rockman (1984; 1985/1986) also used it, with D'Elia and Rockman selecting
the short form while Chwe used the long form. Chwe felt strongly that the
short form should be used for subjects with high educational levels, such as
librarians (Chwe, 1976, p. 50). The MSQ is appropriate for use with
individuals who can read at the fifth grade level or higher. The 100-item
long-form MSQ is quite repetitious. The short-form MSQ uses the same
response categories as the 1977 long form and provides satisfactory data. The
MSQ short-form was selected for this study.
27
Work Behavior Type
Definition
Neff (1969) describes adult work behavior as "the complex product of a
long series of learned and habitual styles of perceiving and coping with
demands of the environment (p. 72). That is, an individual's coping
behaviors consolidate to form a particular work style.
Industrial Psychology
The field of industrial psychology developed specifically to explore the
behaviors of people in the work environment. Researchers claimed that
work behavior is a distinctive area of human behavior which requires
separate theories to explain the behavior of people at work (Neff, 1969;
Wellstood, 1984/1985). Historically, industrial psychologists have viewed
entry into a field from the organization's perspective rather than from that of
the individual. Although "from an organizational standpoint, questions
concerning the matching of a job candidate's abilities to organizational job
requirements [are] more important than the individual's perspective . . .
matching individuals to jobs that are right for them is important"
(Wellstood, 1984/1985, p. 43).
Recruitment and training costs are a practical reason to be aware of the
match between organization and individual. "When an employee leaves the
organization, a drain is placed on the recruiting/training budget, and there is
much loss of time and productivity" (Nickens, 1984, p. 1). Further, a "job-
employee mismatch" causes both employee and administrator to experience
failure. Merrill and Stimpson (1979) wrote of the "implied assumption" that
a job match will work for both the employee and the organization and the
"pain [that] lingers to shadow future recruiting experiences for both" when it
does not (p. 14). They further report that at least 60 percent of newly hired
28
personnel do not meet organizational standards and, of those who survive
the first year, almost 44 percent leave during the second year. This is both an
enormous financial drain for the organization and an emotional and
financial problem for the individual.
Although the majority of employers state that their human resources
are their most important asset, organizations typically do not substantiate this
claim (Jelinik, 1979). She writes that "employees may be used ineffectively in
the sense that their existing skills, knowledge, and aptitudes are poorly
matched with the requirements of their jobs . . . ; the abilities ... of employees
also are often underutilized in terms of what they are expected to do in their
jobs" (p. 287). Jelinik further states that "even the most sophisticated
organizations . . . are relative novices when it comes to the proper
development and utilization of human beings" (ibid).
Evolution of Work Behavior Types
The study of work behavior traits and types as they are understood
today began with the work of William Moulton Marston, a psychologist and
scientist who published Emotions of Normal People in 1928. Marston built
his early theories on the work of the German psychologist Wundt, who
established the first official psychology laboratory in 1879. He is considered
the founder of experimental psychology because of his research with nerve,
muscle and emotional responses (Olson, 1988/1990). Wundt departed from
the view, then current, that pleasantness and unpleasantness are the only two
emotions and proposed in addition four other emotions: excitement and
depression, and tension and relaxation (Marston, 1928). Marston spent many
years building on these original ideas and, through scientific research, began
to perfect his own theories.
29
Marston also reviewed the work of C. G. Jung who, in his book,
Psychological Types, wrote about the clusters of characteristics and the
"collective unconscious" that helps to mold the personality and behavior of
an individual. Jung emphasized that people choose a dominant attitude
toward life: introversion, which is an orientation toward inner processes, or
extroversion, which is an orientation toward the external world of people and
events. He also viewed the human personality in terms of polarities:
conscious values and unconscious values, sublimation and repression,
rational and irrational functions and the previously mentioned introversion
and extroversion. Finally, Jung wrote that each person has only four ways in
which to orient toward the world: two "rational" functions of thinking
(recognizing meaning) and feeling (experiencing pleasure or pain) and two
"irrational" functions of sensation or perceiving by means of unconscious
and subliminal processes (Jung, 1923).
Through his review of the work of Wundt and Jung and based on
research into motation (emotions as measured by motor consciousness,
nerve, and muscle response), Marston (1927; 1928) identified four primary
emotions which he termed dominance, compliance, inducement and
submission. He defined a primary emotion as "an emotion which contained
the maximal amount of alliance, antagonism, [and] superiority of strength of
the motor self in respect to the motor stimulus" (Marston, 1928, p. 106).
Marston (1927) then defined dominance as a "central release of
additional motor energy directed toward dominating obstacles to a reaction
already in progress" (p. 349). He continued, it is "an increase of the self to
overcome an opponent, ... a feeling of an outrush of energy to remove
opposition" (Marston, 1928, p. 140).
Aggressive behavior and a desire to win are not undesirable and can be
developed in ways that are acceptable. Survival as a species, athletic
30
triumphs, the creation of art or music and the primary emotion of infants in
their first three years are all examples of dominant behavior or emotion.
(Wellstood, 1984/1985; Nickens, 1984). However, if this emotion is
uncontrolled, it may be viewed negatively. In a person with a position of
authority, such behavior may cause dissatisfaction or unhappiness in
subordinates.
Compliance, according to Marston (1927), ranks as a basic emotional
response. "Compliance means control (but not inhibition) of tonic motor
discharge reinforcement by a phasic reflex" (p. 350). Marston (1928) further
defined compliance as a
decrease of the motor self to let an opponent move the organism
as if by will; either passively, by making the self give up some
dominant activity, or actively, by compelling the organism to
move in some anti-dominant way ... [It is a] feeling of
acceptance of an object or force as inevitably just what it is,
followed by self-yielding sufficient to bring about harmonious
readjustment of self to object, (p. 183)
Compliance may occur because of sudden change, fear or voluntary
surrender. An individual may believe or come to recognize that forces of
stimuli outside oneself are stronger than internal forces. Intense
conditioning, or repeated environmental stimuli, may lead to compliance
just as moderate repetitious punishment may produce compliance while a
harsh occasional punishment may not (Nickens, 1984).
Marston (1927) stated that submission was a "voluntary yielding to
whatever stimuli may be imposed. It does not seem to overwhelm, or
dominate the subject organism by force, but rather brings about a spontaneous
lessening of the subject's resistance to it until the subject has become less
strong than the stimulus" (pp. 356-357). It can also be understood as the
introspective meaning of mutual warmth between the person who submits
and the one submitted to (Marston, 1928). "In general behavior, submission
31
takes the form of consideration, service to others, selflessness,
accommodation and generosity" (Wellstood, 1984/1985, p. 34).
Inducement can be seen by observing the behavior of individuals who
gain voluntary submission from others. Marston's 1928 definition states that
inducement consists of an increase of the self, and making of the
self more completely allied with the stimulus person, for the
purpose of establishing control over that person's behavior. . . .
The definite characteristic of inducement is a feeling that is
utterly necessary to win the voluntary submission of another
person to do what the subject says. This feeling [is] increasingly
pleasant in proportion as the other person submits, (p. 273)
Inducement may involve "persuasion, personal charm, friendliness, and
frequently seduction or subtle manipulation .... Every positive relationship
contains some inducement behavior, for there must be inducement and
submission for alliance to occur" (Nickens, 1984, p. 7). In modern culture,
advertising is an example of inducement.
Marston's Two-Axis Model
Marston illustrated the four emotions as forming a two-axis model
with dominance and compliance constituting one axis and inducement and
submission constituting the second axis. Individuals attempt to maintain a
balance between the extremes of each axis and the point of balance varies
which, according to Marston, explains differences in behavioral tendencies.
In Marston's model, as seen in Figure 4, dominance and compliance
form one axis. Inducement and submission form the second axis. The two
emotions of each pair are located at opposite ends of a continuum and are
separated by the degree of response, which may be active or passive, as well as
an outward or inward orientation.
32
Dominance Inducement
Figure 4. Marston's Two-Axis Model
Note. From The Marcus Paul Placement Profile and Work Behavior
Analysis by J. M. Nickens, 1984.
The two axes are divided horizontally. The active component and
outward orientation are seen in the upper dimensions of dominance and
inducement while the lower dimension includes the inward orientation and
the passive component made up of submission and compliance.
Geier (1979) both updated and clarified some of Marston's terminology.
He defined the four emotions as follows:
Dominance is an active positive movement in an antagonistic
environment.
Compliance is a cautious tentative response designed to reduce
antagonistic factors in an unfavorable environment.
33
Submission is passive aggressiveness in a favorable
environment.
Inducement is active positive movement in a favorable
environment, (p. 2)
He also added the idea that persons whose traits cluster predominantly in the
upper dimension of the model have a process orientation. These individuals
"want to shape the environment according to their particular view. These
are individuals who continually test and push the limits" (ibid, p. 3). Those
people whose traits cluster in the lower dimension are more product-oriented
and "focus on the how and why" (ibid).
The dimensions in Marston's Two-Axis Model indicate behavioral
tendencies. The behavior traits of an individual tend to cluster around one
dimension more than the others but each individual exhibits some or all of
the types of behavior to at least some degree.
The inability of Marston's model to explain the simultaneous presence
of feelings of dominance and compliance and of inducement and submission
has been cited as the major limitation of the model. Interpretations that fac¬
tor in environmental considerations as influences are, however, worth con¬
sideration. According to Nickens (1984), "people will display work behavior
that is not normal for them when the job induces pressures beyond the
normal. Thus, this is not the normal behavior . . . and ... is beyond the
theory. However, behaving differently under different circumstances is
normal" (p. 9).
Clustered Traits
Marston also identified clusters of traits associated with each of the four
primary emotions. These clusters, shown in Figure 5, helped shape
Marston's data and theories into a model which could be used in understand¬
ing normal behavior (Wellstood, 1984/1985). Factor analysis by subsequent
34
researchers (Allport & Odbert, 1936; Cattell, 1946; Geier, 1967, 1979, 1980) sub¬
stantiated trait clusters, with Geier (1980) reporting that "many of Marston's
suggested adjectives for each of his four emotions had correlated together at
least R = .60" (p. 14). Marston's model has a non-pathological orientation
with four categories supported by cluster traits. This is in contrast to other
theories which are pathologically oriented and contain multiple clusters
(Wellstood, 1984/1985; Nickens, 1984). Marston's non-pathological orienta¬
tion makes the model particularly appropriate for work behavior analysis as
work is a normal activity for adults.
Geier (1980) stated that "one must consider semantic change, or change
of meaning. Then, too, some words acquire negative connotations over time,
or with much repetition have lost their original vividness and become worn
and faded" (p. 12). Accordingly, he built on the work of Marston (1927; 1928)
and Alpert and Odbert (1936) in developing an updated list of traits. On the
whole, most traits were listed as adjectives which made them easier to review
and use in additional research. Geier's list of clustered traits is presented in
Figure 6.
Marcus Paul Placement Profile
Building theoretically on Marston's model and Geier's research, Bauch
(1981) and Nickens (1984) developed the Marcus Paul Placement Profile
(MPPP). The instrument was designed to measure work behavior type for the
purpose of matching individuals and jobs. Counseling, career development,
job recruitment and placement, training, team building, job enhancement
and selection were all possible uses for the MPPP (Bauch, 1981). The MPPP
system incorporates theories of management, career counseling and place¬
ment. A particular strength of the instrument is its recognition that
35
individuals possess a variety of qualities and patterns of behavior in any work
situation (Glenn, 1982/1983, p. 94).
Bauch (1981) did not view work behavior traits and types as judgments
of work behaviors but rather as terms that could be used to increase the
understanding of work behavior, to the benefit of both the organization and
the individual. He advocated positive or neutral terminology with specific
terms reflective of work behaviors. In particular, he replaced some of
Marston's and Geier's terms which had negative connotations with positive
or neutral terms applicable to a work environment. For example, Geier
changed Marston's original categories of dominance, inducement,
submission and compliance to dominance, influence, steadiness and
compliance while Bauch and Nickens designated the four work behavior
types as energizer, inducer, concentrator and producer.
The behaviors that cluster on the dominance dimension are placed
under the energizer work behavior type. The term energizer is more positive
and also more descriptive of the type as found in a work environment.
Marston's inducement and Geier's influence became inducer, a positive and
descriptive term for the second work behavior type. The Marcus Paul
Placement Profile (MPPP) type, concentrator, is a more positive
representation than Marston's submission dimension and a broader
description of the type than Geier's term, steadiness, which is only one aspect
of the trait. Finally, the more descriptive and more positive term producer
replaced compliance. In all four instances, the MPPP labels were changed
from adjectives to nouns to indicate a type as opposed to a trait (Bauch, 1981).
The MPPP work behavior traits are listed under each type in Figure 7.
The semantic development from Marston's descriptions of primary emotions
through Geier's list of traits to the MPPP list can be reviewed through a
comparison of Figures 5, 6, and 7.
Dominance
Inducement
Submission
Compliance
aggressiveness
alluring
accommodating
adapting
boldness
appealing
admiration
awe
courage
attraction
"a good child"
caution
dare-deviltry
"attractive
altruism
candor
determination
personality"
benevolence
conforming
egocentricity
captivation
considerate
well disciplined
ego-emotion
charming
docility
empathy
fighting instinct
convincing
"being an easy mark"
fear
force of character
converting
generosity
"getting down to brass tacks"
fury
"inducing a person"
gentleness
harmony
high spirit
leading
good nature
humility
inferiority feeling
"making an impression"
"being manageable"
"oneness with nature"
initiative
"personal magnetism"
meekness
open mindedness
persistency
persuasion
obedience
peace
rage
seduction
obliging
being a realist
self-assertion
"selling an idea"
slavishness
resignation
self-seeking
"selling oneself"
sweetness
respect
stick-to-itiveness
"winning a person's confidence"
tender heartedness
"swimming with the stream"
stubbornness
"winning a person's friendship"
"being tractable"
timidity
superiority complex
unselfishness
tolerance
unconquerableness
willing service
weak will
will
willingness
yielding to
Figure 5. Marston's Behavioral Description of the Four Primary Emotions (1928)
37
Dominance
adventurous
aggressive
argumentative
arrogant
assertive
bold
brave
competitive
daring
decisive
defiant
determined
direct
eager
fearless
firm
force of character
forceful
inquisitive
inventive
irritable
nervy
original
outspoken
persistent
pioneering
positive
rebellious
restless
rigorous
self-reliant
stubborn
unconquerable
vigorous
will power
Influencing
(Inducement)*
admirable
affectionate
animated
attractive
boastful
charming
companionable
confident
convincing
cordial
energetic
expressive
fervent
flexible
fluent
good mixer
high-spirited
inspiring
jovial
joyful
life of the party
light-hearted
open-minded
optimistic
persuasive
playful
polished
popular
prideful
proud
responsive
self-assured
spirited
talkative
trusting
Steadiness
(Submission)*
accommodating
attentive
cheerful
companionable
confidential
considerate
contented
controlled
deliberate
earnest
easy mark
even-tempered
friendly
generous
gentle
good-natured
gracious
hospitable
kind
lenient
loyal
mild
moderate
modest
neighborly
nonchalant
obedient
patient
peaceful
possessive
reliable
sentimental
sympathetic
trustful
willing
Compliance
accurate
adaptable
adherent
agreeable
calculating
calm
cautious
conformist
consistent
contemplative
cultured
devout
diplomatic
easily-led
exacting
fearful
fussy
God-fearing
harmonious
humble
logical
objective
obliging
peaceful
precise
receptive
resigned
respectful
soft-spoken
strict
systematic
tactful
timid
tolerant
well-disciplined
Figure 6. Geier's Revised List of Traits Which Correspond to the Four
Primary Emotions (1980)
Note: * Marston's (1928) original terms.
38
Energizer
Inducer
(Dominance)*
(Inducement)*
(Dominance^
(Influencing)o
aggressive
attracts people
bold
change agent
certain
convincing
competitive
enthusiastic
decisive
expressive
demanding
friendly
determined
happy
direct
hopeful
dominant
inspiring
eager
playful
forceful
personable
independent
persuader
leader
popular
new ideas
respected
original
seeks new ideas
outspoken
sociable
sure
talkative
takes charge
team leader
venturesome
vigorous
Concentrator
Producer
(Submission)*
(Compliance)*
(Steadiness)0
(Compliance^
accepting
accurate
attentive
agreeable
caring
careful
committed
cautious
contented
compliant
considerate
conforming
diplomatic
contented
disciplined
devoted
easy going
exacting
exacting
follows orders
loyal
follows procedures
orderly
governed
patient
logical
peaceful
precise
reasonable
resigned
respectful
respectful
satisfied
responsible
sharing
systematic thinker
steady
tolerant
trusting
understanding
Figure 7. Marcus Paul Placement Profile List of Traits (Bauch, 1981)
Note: * Marston's (1928) original terms; 0 Geier's (1980) revised list of traits.
The theoretical basis of the MPPP is similar to Herzberg's motivator-
hygiene model for job satisfaction. That is, Herzberg recognized that the
factors which enhance job satisfaction (the motivators) do not automatically
produce dissatisfaction when absent and the factors that induce dissatisfaction
(hygienes) do not necessarily produce satisfaction when present. Nickens
(1984) viewed the primary behaviors of dominance, submission, compliance
and inducement as independent pairs. This does not mean that Nickens
denied the existence of strong inverse relationships between the "opposite
39
pairs" in statistical models. The recognition of trait independence provided a
more powerful tool for explaining complex behaviors on an individual basis
(Nickens, 1984, p. 13).
A major contribution in work behavior analysis was the automation of
the response analysis and reporting. Nickens developed a system in which
responses marked on the MPPP response sheet can be entered into a
microcomputer, analyzed, and the results printed immediately in a form
easily used for discussion. The report can be retained by an individual for
future reference and further discussion.
There are 24 sets of forced choice items in the MPPP. In each set,
respondents indicate the term most descriptive of their work behavior and
the term least descriptive of their work behavior. Work behavior types are
then reported as energizers, inducers, concentrators, and producers. The
profile includes a narrative description of an individual's strengths and
tendencies in a work setting. A more complete description of the
administration, analysis and reporting of the MPPP is provided in Chapter III.
Academic Librarians
Personality Studies
A considerable literature exists on the personality of the librarian.
Bryan (1952), Douglas (1957) and Rainwater (1965) studied various
populations of librarians between 1948 and 1965. All three studies showed the
average librarian to be more submissive or deferential than the general
population and to possess a set of qualities summarized by the term
"endurance." They also showed the librarian to be less affiliative, less
dominant, less heterosexual in interests and less aggressive than the
normative population. All the studies agreed that the same characteristics
applied to both males and females within the total population of librarians.
40
However, Bryan (1952), who studied public librarians in one of the earliest
comprehensive studies of librarian personality, used the Guildford-Martin
Inventory of Factors (GAMIN) which has fallen into disuse. It has been
criticized for several reasons but especially because of its subjectivity (Agada,
1987). Douglass (1957) sought to determine the extent to which the profession
selects members having a characteristic personality pattern. Between 1947
and 1948 he administered a series of measures, using the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) as his major instrument. This test
was designed for use in psychopathological testing and could be inappropriate
for understanding normal behavior (Agada, 1987; Fisher, 1988). Rainwater
(1965) administered the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS) to 94
student librarians. His findings suggested greater tendencies toward
nurturance and succorance, as well as low heterosexuality, and conform to
the broad groupings of behavior described by Bryan (1952) and Douglas (1957).
However, Rainwater's interpretations are now considered questionable
(Agada, 1987).
In the decade of the 1960s, Baillie (1961/1962) studied a small sample of
65 librarians and found that although they conformed to "normal"
personality patterns, they were aloof, suspicious and wary. McMahon (1967)
reported on librarians' lack of leadership potential and noted that "people
with certain personality traits are drawn towards librarianship as a career" (p.
2). Morrison (1961), Clayton (1968), and Magrill (1969) produced three doctoral
studies related to librarian personality. The Ghiselli Self-Description
Inventory was used to study academic librarians (Morrison, 1961). He stated
that librarians with dynamic personality traits were needed and that the
personality profile of academic librarians was not especially suited to the
needs of the modern library. Clayton (1968) administered the California
Personality Inventory to entrants to the profession who showed an
41
orientation to academic librarianship and found the subjects to be
disinterested in decision-making and lacking in initiative and assertiveness.
During the 1970s studies reporting the docile nature and passivity of
library students were published. The works of Segal (1970), Goodwin (1972),
and Plate and Stone (1974) are representative of this research with Segal, in
particular, reporting male librarians to be practical, somewhat unfeeling and
generally suspicious. Presthaus (1970) and Hamilton (1976) found the
librarians they studied to be bureaucratic and resistant to change, both
sociological and technological. In a study of 160 full-time librarians, Clift
(1976) investigated the personality characteristics of the group, and the
accuracy of library patron's stereotype of librarians. Results revealed high
needs for achievement, endurance, and order and low needs for exhibition,
aggression and change. Males but not females had high needs for nurturance
and deference and a low need for autonomy. Both sexes scored high on
measures of self-control and personal adjustment. Lee and Hall (1973)
employed the Sixteen Personality Questionnaire (16PF) to determine mean
differences in selected personality characteristics between a female college
norm group and a group of female prospective librarians. In contrast to the
occupational stereotype of librarians as rigid, conventional, tense and less
stable, the library science students were not found to exhibit these
characteristics to any greater degree than the norm group. In addition, the
three scales with significant differences (more intelligent, experimenting and
self-sufficient) were favorable to the prospective librarians.
Personality studies of librarians and prospective librarians continued
throughout the 1980s. Two of these examined specific questions related to
behavioral styles of university technical service librarians, compared with
public service librarians (Frankie, 1980/1981) and first, second or alternative
career academic librarians (Moore, 1981). Frankie (1980/1981) concluded that
42
"university librarianship constitutes an occupational sub-culture
characterized by very distinctive and potentially very dysfunctional values,
attitudes and work preferences" (p. 163). She found that the academic
librarians studied lacked self-confidence, avoided aggression, were resistant to
job challenges, were primarily motivated by extrinsic rewards and showed
little inclination toward leadership, assertiveness, social interaction and
change. Moore (1981) reported no differences in personality characteristics as
related to managerial talent for those who selected librarianship as a first
career, those who worked in another field which required graduate training
prior to entering librarianship and those who chose it as an alternative career.
"Regardless of the route by which a person comes to academic librarianship, it
appears that the same type does ultimately come" (p. 146). Moore did find
librarians closer to the norm on general personality characteristics than
earlier studies had reported. Lemkau (1984) studied the personalities and
backgrounds of 54 men (A's) employed in female-dominated professions,
including nurse, elementary school teacher and librarian. They were
compared with 63 men (S's) employed in sex-typical fields. A's showed lower
adherence to traditional sex-role expectations such as household
responsibilities and exhibited greater "tender-minded" emotional sensitivity.
"There was also evidence that upward-mobility strivings may have
contributed to atypical career choices, with A's more frequently being
members of social minorities and/or of lower socio-economic background"
(p. 110). The data suggest that disadvantaged youth seeking upward mobility
may choose female-dominated professions as easier to permeate and are
consistent with other research in the area (ibid).
Agada (1984; 1984/1985; 1987) has written extensively on librarian
personality, especially on the aspect of assertiveness. In his doctoral
dissertation (1984/1985) he compared beginning and graduating library school
43
students with counterparts in law and liberal arts. Both third-year library and
liberal arts students were less assertive than first-year students while law
students maintained a comparable degree of assertiveness at both levels.
Agada suggested that library education does not enhance student assertion.
He recommended that the profession focus on the socialization of students to
an appropriate professional demeanor. Webreck's findings (1985/1986)
suggested that librarians exhibit introverted and judging personality types.
This was consistent with Agada's (1984/1985; 1987) assertion studies. Finally,
a study of 500 first-year library school students from eight European countries
(Bruyns, 1989) revealed that library schools attracted students who were less
technical, less creative, less sports-loving and, possibly, less ambitious when
compared with other Higher Vocational Education students. Little difference
was found between male and female students. The research indicated "future
librarians are still persons who in general are interested in culture and
humanities" (p. 58). Further, "the profession . . . attracts students who are, in
general, conservative, who do not show a tendency towards taking initiatives,
who have an attitude inclining towards rendering services and who, in
general, cannot be characterized as having dynamic personalities" (ibid).
In one of the most recent studies available, David (1990/1991)
concentrated on librarians working in technological environments. She
reported that "all librarians, independent of their sub-specialties, were
dominant on Holland's Artistic Type" (p. 164). She also found that none of
the groups tested were dominant on Holland's Conventional Type nor were
they conservative, as both earlier studies and stereotypical representations of
the profession would imply (ibid).
Fisher (1988) analyzed measures used in early studies of librarian
personality, including the California Psychological Index (CPI) and, in the case
of the CPI, found questions designed to reveal feminine traits to be
44
"ideological and not a little farcical" (p. 41). For example, replying "true" to
the question "I think I would like the work of a librarian" indicates a
feminine orientation. In other words, the very job of librarian is considered a
feminine activity. Fisher argued strongly that there is doubt in the utility of
the entire psychological approach to librarianship. He reviewed several
studies and concluded that each attempted to generalize from samples which
were frequently very small and used personality tests shown to be largely
inappropriate. "No real attempts have been made to link the individual and
the social, personality traits are mostly viewed as absolute, existing across all
situations" (ibid, p. 45). Agada (1984) also criticized earlier studies of librarian
personality for using questionable control groups, limited and/or non-
random sampling, use of other career professionals as "norms" and lack of
replication.
Most important, most of the studies used dated multitrait global
personality inventories which do not meet current high
standards of reliability and validity, failing especially to show a
high degree of convergent and discriminant validity. Most of
these instruments have a psychopathological basis which is
usually inappropriate and inadequate for the understanding of
normal behavior, (pp. 38-39)
Fisher (1988) advocated a more sociological approach to this area of study, one
which acknowledges the interaction between the individual and the social,
and which uses techniques or instruments suitable for varied and normal
individuals. "The conflicting results . . . would lead one to believe that
libraries like other organizations are populated by staff with varied interests
and attributes" (p. 46). Agada (1984) wrote "there is a need for personality
studies in librarianship to focus on the behavior-reactions of the personality
types in the context of their particular job experiences" (p. 40). Van House
(1988), in her study of library science students' choice of career, stated that
"more research is needed in career choice generally, on environmental and
45
personal influencing factors, and on the process of people's decisions to enter
librarianship" (p. 173). One additional factor which should be considered is
the "strikingly homogeneous demographic characteristics" (Heim and Moen,
1992, p. 95) displayed by library and information science students over the last
30 years. A 1988 study of students in the (then) 54 American Library
Association accredited library and information science programs in the
United States revealed survey respondents to be overwhelmingly white (93.7
percent) and female (80.9 percent).
lob Satisfaction of Academic Librarians
As previously stated, interest in job satisfaction can be seen in the
number of studies related to it. Locke (1969) estimated that more than 4,000
articles on the subject had been published while Chwe (1976) increased that
number to 5,000. Of those 5,000, Chwe was able to identify only about 10
studies of job satisfaction in the field of librarianship in the United States (p.
23-27). Additional studies were completed after 1976 including at least eight
relevant dissertations.
Frankie (1980/1981) studied university catalog and reference librarians
using worker analysis techniques. Lindstrom (1980) compared community
college and college/university librarians and found different levels of
satisfaction for each area. Swe (1981/1982) compared bibliographers and non¬
bibliographers in academic research libraries while Hook (1981) concluded
that library administrators in academic libraries were significantly more
satisfied with higher-level intrinsic aspects of their work than non¬
administrators. Glasgow (1982) found academic librarians' perceptions of
their work, position in the library organization, salary and perceptions of
their promotion opportunities to be the variables most useful in predicting
job satisfaction. Green (1982) studied library personnel employed in the
46
University of North Carolina system and investigated the relationship
between communication satisfaction and job satisfaction. Hegg (1982/1984)
and Rockman (1985/1986) used the MSQ in studies designed to reconcile
inconsistent findings regarding job satisfaction and to produce a demographic
profile of academic librarians.
As early as 1937 the twin issues of job satisfaction and work behavior
type of librarians were addressed in contributions to a symposium entitled
"Square Pegs in Square Holes—Bringing Together Talent and Opportunity in
the Library Profession." In particular, deficiencies in staff management
techniques, monotonous and routine work with little opportunity for
creativity, lack of professional development opportunities, limited
promotions, inadequate salaries (Nourse, 1937) and lack of clear job
specifications and classifications (Timmerman, 1937) were described as factors
related to dissatisfaction. The issues of salary and advancement opportunities
were studied again by Hoage (1950) who investigated the reasons for
resignations in two large university libraries. Salary and advancement were
cited most frequently by the respondents, after marriage or following
husband. Herrick (1950) found these same issues of importance in her study
of the morale of college librarians although proper equipment, physical
working environment and relationship with other employees were all
ranked as "essential" or "important" slightly more frequently.
A number of studies related to the job satisfaction of librarians have
appeared in the past 25 years. Vaughn (1972/1973) found the concept of
multidimensional job satisfaction to be an important research concept useful
in exploring environmental and behavioral features of the work setting of
one university library with work, pay, promotion and supervision emerging
as key parameters in the analysis of data. A second study (Vaughn & Dunn,
1974) expanded the concept to six university libraries and emphasized again
47
the multidimensional nature of job satisfaction, in addition to the causal
influence of managerial performance upon employee productivity and
satisfaction. Miniter (1975/1976) found women to be generally more satisfied
in their work than men, Scammel and Stead (1980) reported relatively
constant levels of job satisfaction across different age and tenure categories
and Limpiyasrisakul (1980/1981) identified involving librarians in decision¬
making processes as a factor in improving job satisfaction. Lindstrom (1980)
determined that the work itself and pay were the most critical areas related to
low job satisfaction with independence, challenging work and service
opportunities related to higher satisfaction while Smith and Reinow (1984)
reported that a perception of low professional status and lack of professional
development and advancement opportunities were related to dissatisfaction.
Additional research (Hook, 1981; Glasgow, 1982; Lynch & Verdin, 1983;
Chopra, 1984; Bernstein & Leach, 1985; Bengston & Shields, 1985; Sherrer,
1985; Allison & Sartori, 1988; Washington, 1988; Mirfakharai, 1991; and
Horenstein, 1993) revealed library administrators to be more satisfied with
intrinsic aspects of their work than non-administrators, management style to
be the best predictor of librarian satisfaction in an academic setting and faculty
status or rank to be a predictor of overall job satisfaction. Intellectually
challenging work, advancement opportunities, independence and autonomy,
support for professional travel and research and salary continued to appear as
factors in job satisfaction/job dissatisfaction.
A theory of role dynamics focusing on stress resulting from
expectations derived from the work environment defined two main types of
stress. Role conflict (created by expectations in conflict) and role ambiguity
(created by vague or unclear expectations) led to conclusions of lower levels of
job satisfaction for workers in environments which created high conflict and
ambiguity (Kahn et al., 1964). An analysis of these variables within the
48
context of librarianship suggested both were significantly related to overall job
satisfaction (Stead & Scamell, 1980). The bureaucratic nature of librarianship
and the limited discretionary power given to professionally trained workers is
stated to be unusual when compared to other professions with specific
professional education, such as engineers, teachers, scientists and hospital
personnel (ibid). In addition, the relationship appears to be affected by
individual and environmental variables and to be moderated by self-esteem,
particularly for lower-level librarians (Hosel, 1984).
Studies Related to Maslow and Herzberg
Maslow's need hierarchy theory and Herzberg's dual-factor theory were
specifically considered in a series of studies. One of the earliest (Wahba, 1973)
provided an empirical test of the applicability of the theories to librarians.
Promotional opportunities, pay levels and security were sources of strong
dissatisfaction with women reporting greater dissatisfaction with the factors
in addition to that of supervision. Women also expressed greater need
deficiencies than men in esteem, autonomy and self-actualization. Library
administrators expressed higher satisfaction in these areas with technical
services librarians expressing the lowest levels. Wahba (1985) explored the
differences in job satisfaction for men and women in a later study which
concentrated on their perceived degree of need fulfillment and need
deficiencies. Similar levels of fulfillment were reported in lower-order needs,
such as social or security needs, with women reporting significantly lower
levels of fulfillment than men in esteem and autonomy needs. In the area of
need deficiency, women indicated larger degrees of need than men in all areas
except for the social need.
A particularly relevant study involving 237 American and Canadian
librarians investigated job satisfaction in relation to Herzberg's theory (Plate
49
& Stone, 1974). These authors reported findings corresponding to those of
Herzberg, most notably that
the factors involved in producing job satisfaction (and
motivation) are distinct and different from the factors that lead
to job dissatisfaction and the factors producing job satisfaction
(and motivation) are concerned primarily with the actual job
content (or work-process factors): the reasons for dissatisfaction
(or hygiene factors) deal primarily with factors relating to the
context in which the job is done—the job environment. Both
sets of factors are closely interrelated, (p. 97)
Partial support for Herzberg's theory was reported in a study of academic
librarians in Jordan (Hamshari, 1985/1986). Both motivators and hygienes
contributed to overall job satisfaction and technical services librarians scored
significantly higher than public service librarians on most dimensions.
Additional support for the theory was provided by Nzotta (1987) who
determined compensation, physical environment and advancement to be
major sources of dissatisfaction with security, actual work itself and
autonomy producing satisfaction in his study of Nigerian librarians.
Additional studies of librarians which drew upon Maslow's or
Herzberg's theories investigated the role of work space in productivity and
satisfaction (Isacco, 1985), decision-making and staff morale (Nitecki, 1984),
expectations of administrators (Price, 1987; Fink, 1987) expectations by
administrators (Alley, 1987), work-related stress (Bunge, 1987) and job
satisfaction of ethnic minority librarians (Squire, 1991). Baker and Sandore
(1991) considered Maslow's hierarchy in relation to the rapid pace of
institutional and technological change in libraries. Building on their earlier
work, they concluded that the introduction of automation, in particular, led
many librarians to feel threatened concerning job security, professional
knowledge and professional competency. "Professionals who are already at
ease with many of the levels on Maslow's needs hierarchy are suddenly faced
50
with starting all over, possibly to satisfy beginning or basic job security needs"
(p. 43). They concluded, however, that it is the uncertainty and turbulence of
change rather than specific individual events, such as the introduction of
new technologies into libraries, which have caused ambivalence and
insecurity and lowered the reported job satisfaction of librarians.
Studies Using the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire has been used in several
studies related to librarians. One of the first studies to use the instrument was
a short longitudinal investigation in which data pertaining to vocational
needs and job expectations were collected prior to subject entry into work
environments with data on vocational need, environmental reinforcers and
job satisfaction collected after subjects had been working at least six months
(D'Elia, 1975). Job satisfaction was determined to be a function of both need
gratification and expectation fulfillment. A later study (D'Elia, 1979) found
two job factors related to supervision (human relations and ability
utilization) to be most related to satisfaction.
The level of general job satisfaction showed no significant difference
for university catalogers or reference librarians in a study that used the long-
form MSQ, although some specific areas, such as "variety," "compensation,"
or "working conditions" did show substantial differences (Chwe, 1976; 1978).
Additional studies using the MSQ concluded bibliographers were more
satisfied than non-bibliographers on intrinsic satisfaction (Swe, 1981/1982),
age was associated with job satisfaction while participation in continuing
education was not and job satisfaction as a single variable was not related to
faculty status (Hegg, 1982/1984, 1985, and 1986). Women librarians in Nigeria
derive greater satisfaction from their work than men, in contrast to studies of
librarians in the United States where men were either more satisfied or no
51
difference was determined (Nzotta, 1985). Autonomy and decision-making
opportunities were more important in predicting job satisfaction than gender
(Rockman, 1984; 1985/1986) and factors related to superior-subordinate
relations (supervision) were significantly related to general job satisfaction
(Swasdison, 1989/1990).
Conclusion
Controversy surrounds the study of librarian personality as well as that
of the job satisfaction of academic librarians. No study was found which
combined an exploration of personal characteristics, such as work behavior
type, with job satisfaction results. Such a study would appear to be of
potential interest to graduate schools of library and information science as
they select students for admission and to academic institutions as they recruit
and hire librarians. The entire process of recruitment, selection,
compensation and retention of manpower in an occupation is of interest in
any study of the socialization of professions (Schmidt and Hunter, 1979) and
this study may be of benefit in this area.
Finally, the study has the potential to expand current understanding of
work behavior type by studying a population not previously included in
MPPP studies.
Summary
This review of the literature includes information on theories of job
satisfaction, the measurement of job satisfaction and theories and research
related to the study of work behavior type, including the development of the
Marcus Paul Placement Profile. The chapter concludes with a review of
relevant studies related to the personality and job satisfaction of academic
52
librarians. The following chapter outlines how work behavior type and job
satisfaction were explored in this study.
CHAPTER III
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
Organization of the Chapter
The design and methodology of the study are described in this chapter.
It contains an explanation of the research problem, the research population
and procedures, which include data collection, instrumentation and statistical
treatment.
Statement of the Research Problem
The problem this study investigated was to relate two well-established
theories about job satisfaction/dissatisfaction to the library work
environment. The first theory (Herzberg, 1966; Herzberg, Mausner, &
Snyderman, 1959) suggests that job satisfaction relates to a set of work
environment conditions called "motivators" and job dissatisfaction relates to
a different set of work environment conditions called "hygienes." The
second theory (Nickens, 1984; Bauch, 1981) suggests that workers related
differently to the same work environment and that their different reactions
are predictable by the Marcus Paul Placement Profile scores. In this context,
the following questions guided the study:
1. What are the work behavior types of academic librarians in
Florida as measured by the Marcus Paul Placement Profile
(MPPP)?
2. What are the motivators and hygienes perceived by academic
librarians in Florida as reported on the Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire (MSQ)?
53
54
3. Do factors derived from a factor analysis of the MSQ show
characteristics of motivators and hygienes?
4. Do the different work behavior type scores of academic librarians
in Florida, as measured by the MPPP, relate differently to the
motivator and hygiene scores derived from the MSQ?
Population
The majority of potential subjects in the sample population were the
1993 Florida members of a national organization, the Association of College
and Research Libraries, a division of the American Library Association.
Additional members of the subject pool were the members of the Academic
Caucus of the Florida Library Association for 1993. Membership in a
professional organization relevant to academic librarianship was the initial
criterion for inclusion in the subject pool. This yielded 350 potential subjects.
The subjects retained in the sample group consisted of individuals
currently employed as professional librarians in academic libraries in Florida.
Academic libraries were defined as those in post-baccalaureate institutions
(community or junior college, college, university or special library connected
with a post-baccalaureate institution). Only those individuals holding a
Master's degree in Library Science (MLS) or an appropriate equivalent degree
were included in the analysis of data. Although academic librarians
increasingly hold additional subject-related graduate degrees, an accredited
MLS is the usual required degree for entry into the profession (Robbins, 1990).
Procedures
Data Collection
Data for work behavior type (WBT) were collected using the MPPP. Job
satisfaction data were collected using the MSQ. Both measures are self-
55
reporting forms, described as appropriate for distribution through the mail.
Instrument packets were numerically coded to eliminate personal
identification but to permit correlation of responses. Study participants who
wished to receive a printed profile reporting their work behavior type were
instructed to put their names on the MPPP form. Following the distribution
of the MPPP reports and before the analysis of data, responses were recorded
with a second numbering scheme to ensure confidentiality.
The national office of the Association of College and Research Libraries
(ACRL) provided the researcher with sets of mailing labels for ACRL
members living in Florida. Mailing labels for members of the Academic
Caucus of the Florida Library Association were provided by the state office of
the organization. A cover letter (Appendix A) explaining the study,
requesting participation and assuring confidentiality for participants was sent
to the 350 individuals who constituted the subject pool, along with an MPPP
form, an MSQ form and a demographic form which supplemented the
demographic section of the MSQ. A stamped envelope addressed to the
researcher was included for ease of return. Those contacted were asked to
reply within one week. Approximately two weeks after the first mailing, a
second letter requesting participation was sent to non-respondents (Appendix
B). Along with personal reminders for individuals who could be readily
contacted by telephone or electronic mail, a second reminder letter, sent
approximately two months after the initial mailing, was distributed to non¬
respondents. This final mailing included a second complete instrument
packet. These three mail contacts completed the data collection sequence.
As an incentive for participation, the 350 members of the subject pool
were offered an opportunity to receive a copy of their individual MPPP
profile. Approximately 60 percent of the respondents requested the profile.
This group received one additional mailing which included a letter briefly
56
describing the theoretical basis of the MPPP profile, thanking them for their
participation and including their personal profile (Appendix C). Finally,
participants who wished to learn more about the results of the study or who
had individual questions were encouraged to contact the researcher in a
separate letter or message. Some questions were answered immediately;
those requesting information concerning results were retained in a file for
later response.
Instrumentation
The study is based on two constructs. The first construct is work
behavior type. The Marcus Paul Placement Profile (MPPP) was used to
measure work behavior type. The second construct addressed in the study is
job satisfaction/job dissatisfaction. The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
(MSQ) was used to measure the second construct.
Marcus Paul Placement Profile
The MPPP was designed to describe the individual work behavior
patterns of people for the purpose of matching individuals and jobs. It can be
used in an educational setting to facilitate the job placement of students and
in a business setting as an aid in the recruitment, placement and assignment
of personnel. It may also be used as an element in the development of work
teams by assisting team members to understand and appreciate different work
behaviors and as a training tool (Bauch, 1981). As long as the work
environment is stable, work behavior patterns are stable over time. All
individuals exhibit all the work behavior patterns to some degree but one
behavior pattern will emerge as predominant (Glenn, 1982/1983; Wellstood,
1984/1985).
The theoretical design of the MPPP is based on the model developed by
William Marston (1928). Marston theorized that human behavior
57
corresponded to primary emotions which could be assigned to one of four
categories: dominance, inducement, submission and compliance. In
addition, Marston determined behavioral traits for each of the four categories.
Statistical confirmation of these traits was provided by Cattell (1948) and Geier
(1967). Bauch (1981) and Nickens (1984) drew on this research base in the
development of the MPPP as a tool which could increase understanding of
work behavior. A more complete discussion of the theoretical basis of the
MPPP is included in Chapter II.
Theories related to management, placement and career counseling
form an additional basis for the MPPP. In addition, the work of Argyris
(1964), Blake and Mouton (1964) and McGregor (1960), who were instrumental
in integrating humanistic principles into the work place, were incorporated
into the design of the MPPP with the intent of developing an instrument that
would increase the understanding of work behavior for employer and
employee alike. The terminology used in the MPPP is positive or neutral.
This reflects the philosophy of Bauch (1981) who believed that work behavior
traits and types are terms that can be used to increase understanding of work
behaviors rather than as judgments of work behaviors. Finally, the terms
used in the profile do not reflect social behavior but reflect work behavior
(Nickens, 1984). The MPPP can be completed in less than 10 minutes. Test-
retest reliability is about .98, as reported by Wellstood (1984/1985).
The MPPP consists of 24 sets or "boxes," each containing four forced-
choice terms from which an individual selects the one that is most
descriptive of his or her self-perceived work behavior. The individual then
selects the word in each box that is least descriptive of his or her work
behavior. Each word choice in a box is numbered one, two, three, or four in
both the "most" and "least" category. The number of one word is circled in
the "most" category and the number of another word is circled in the "least"
58
category. An example of an MPPP "box" is illustrated in Figure 8. Only one
"most" and one "least" choice is made in each of the 24 boxes.
Sample Box
Most
Least
1
careful
1
2
fast
2
3
alert
3
4
nice
4
Figure 8. Illustration of a Marcus Paul
Placement Profile "Box"
By entering these numbers into a computer program that associates
them with a MPPP behavior type score, a profile is developed.
Four independent scores are reported on the profile derived from the
MPPP. The scores relate to four work behavior types: energizer, inducer,
concentrator and producer. The 4 independent scores are plotted on a scale
that extends from -15 to +15. At the center of the scale is the norm score, zero.
This allows for easy observation of the relationship of each individual score
to the norm as well as to each other score. The scores are scaled, a graph with
the scores plotted on it is produced and, following the graph, a narrative
description of the behavior associated with the score of best fit is provided. In
addition, an interpretation of the behavior associated with the relative scaled
scores is included in the MPPP report. (Nickens, 1984). Figure 9 illustrates an
abbreviated sample MPPP profile.
PLACEMENT PROFILE
OF
JANE DOE
Energizer x .
Inducer x
Concentrator
Producer
x
x
- 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 +
Interpretation:
Jane Doe is a producer type. Producers strive for quality as they carefully follow procedures....
Jane Doe is of the worker group noted for high levels of...
<_n
vO
Figure 9.
Sample MPPP Profile
60
The four terms listed in the profile represent the four primary work
behavior types. The highest score of these four is the individual's "primary
type of best fit" (Nickens, 1984, p. 11). The description of the four primary
types, as they would be included in a report of a profile, are included below.
Energizer (E) type worker: These workers are actively engaged in
getting results. They are assertive, choosing a direct approach as they pursue
goals. High 'E' type workers are impatient with detail, desiring a direct
answer and action from associates. They are creative and have many ideas for
improving the work processes.
Concentrator (C) type worker: Normally, the 'C types apply their skills
in orderly ways, resisting distractions. They are steady workers and are loyal
to the organization, showing great patience. They are systematic, effective
and help to maintain moderation in tense situations.
Inducer (I) type worker: These people involve others as they pursue
their objectives. They are sensitive to needs of their associates, and share
optimistic outlooks as they influence others. They are good at using group
processes to accomplish goals, being able to clarify ideas for themselves and
others. They place more emphasis on people and interpersonal relations
than on their organization.
Producer (P) type worker: Producers strive for quality as they carefully
follow procedures, guidelines, or standards. They can support their decisions
and actions with irrefutable documentation. Producers expect clear directions
but they can be relied on to meet their deadlines, follow orders and carry out
their assignments with precision.
An important contribution to the field of work behavior analysis was
the automation of analysis and the corresponding ability to quickly produce a
computer-generated report. The report can be used as a basis for discussion,
career counseling, or as a component in career self-understanding. Through
61
the work of John Nickens, a program was devised which allows the words
selected as "most" or "least" in the 24 "boxes" on the MPPP response sheet to
be entered into a microcomputer with results analyzed and a profile printed
almost immediately. In addition to classroom use, the MPPP lends itself to
use in career development workshops or training sessions.
Reliability and validity of instrumentation are important
considerations in any decision to use a particular measure. "Validity and
reliability refer to different aspects of a measure's believability. Judgments of
validity answer the question: Is the instrument an appropriate one for what
needs to be measured? And reliability indicators answer: Does the
instrument yield consistent results?" (Henerson, Morris & Fitz-Gibbon, 1987,
p. 133). Further, "it is impossible for a measuring instrument to be reliable
without being valid. However, it cannot be valid unless it is first reliable"
(Ary, Jacobs & Razavieh, 1985, p. 226). "So if one demonstrates a satisfactory
level of validity, at least internal reliability must be assumed" (Nickens, 1984,
p. 14).
With its reliance on a sound theoretical basis, the MPPP reflects a
validity called face validity. The statistical procedures that were employed to
obtain the 96 MPPP "most/least" adjectives and to associate them with work
behavior type, although not discussed in detail here, also provide evidence of
reliability and validity.
In addition, a study of 96 Santa Fe Community College career education
students demonstrated that 88.4 percent of the students, after analyzing their
own responses to the MPPP, rated the accuracy of the analysis components as
"an accurate description of my work behavior." This result indicates a high
level of concurrent validity for the MPPP. Concurrent validity comes from
the practice of relating a measurement to a criterion to determine the amount
of congruence. Measures accounting for more than 64 percent of the variance
62
in a criterion measure are rarely reported in the literature. "This high degree
of congruence between students' perceptions of their work behavior and the
descriptions provided by the MPPP suggests that the MPPP is sufficiently valid
for helping college students understand their work behavior" (Nickens, p.
14).
The MPPP also has been shown to have predictive validity when used
for career planning. Glenn (1982/1983), Wellstood (1984/1985), Olson
(1988/1990) and Barber (1989/1990) studied work behavior types as they relate
to job satisfaction, attrition, specific vocations, perception of individuals in
leadership positions and occupational stressors. According to Glenn
(1982/1983), . . significant relationships were found between (MPPP) work
behavior types and areas of job satisfactions. Additionally, specific areas of job
effectiveness were found to be significantly related to work behavior type.
These findings were consistent with expectations . . ." (p. ix).
Glenn concluded,
in order to maintain maximum effectiveness and worker
satisfaction, employees need to be placed in jobs which meet
their needs for degree of structure, autonomy, supervision,
feedback, and contact with co-workers. One way to understand
these various needs is to have knowledge of individual work
behavior types and personality functions, (p. 135)
Wellstood (1984/1985) further reported "results indicate that work behavior
type relates to overall and to specific aspects of job satisfaction . . . [on the
MPPP]" (p. vi).
Supervisors and managers could make valuable use of
knowledge about work behavior types as well as the types of
their subordinates when assigning tasks or projects. . . . teaching
and training techniques should also differ for the various work
behavior types, (pp. 113-114)
63
The results of these and other studies have shown that information on work
behavior types can be useful in a variety of work-related areas, including job
satisfaction and career planning.
The face validity of the MPPP, the concurrent validity demonstrated
through research at Santa Fe Community College and additional research at
the University of Florida have demonstrated that the MPPP "is valid as a
career advisement tool for helping people understand their work strengths,
and for suggestions for writing effective letters of reference for individuals
seeking job placements" (Nickens, 1984, p. 15). Although all theoretically
valid uses of the instrument have not yet been researched, the MPPP "was
designed to be utilized as a tool ... in the business setting for recruiting, job
placement, work assignment, team building, and training" (p. 10) and,
accordingly, it was chosen for this study. Use of the MPPP in this study also
provided insight into another theoretically valid use for the instrument.
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
The Minnesota Studies in Vocational Rehabilitation, or the Work
Adjustment Project, are a series of research studies which began in 1957 and
which have led to the development of a variety of instruments to measure
indicators of work adjustment. The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
(MSQ) is a measure for one of the primary indicators of work adjustment. It
allows for the attainment of a more individualized assessment of worker
satisfaction, that is, two individuals may express similar amounts of general
satisfaction with their work but the reasons for this satisfaction may be very
different.
The MSQ is available in long form and in short form. Some previous
studies of the job satisfaction of librarians used one of the two MSQ forms
(D'Elia, 1975; Chwe, 1976; Rockman, 1985/1986; Nzotta, 1987). In particular,
64
D'Elia used the short form MSQ and Chwe used the long form MSQ. Chwe
argued strongly that, because of the repetitive format of the long form, the
short form was more appropriate for subjects, like academic librarians, with
high levels of education (Chwe, 1978, p. 50). Finally, the short form MSQ was
considered more appropriate for distribution though the mail as it can be
completed in about 10 minutes, thus making it more likely that potential
subjects would participate in the study. The MSQ is self-administering with
directions on the first page. Although no time limit is imposed, respondents
are encouraged to complete responses quickly.
The short form MSQ, consisting of 20 questions that measure 21
dimensions of job satisfaction (ability utilization, achievement, activity,
advancement, authority, compensation, co-workers, creativity, independence,
moral values, policies and practices, recognition, responsibility, security,
social service, social status, supervision-human relations, supervision-
technical, variety and working conditions) was selected for this study. Each
item refers to a possible motivator or hygiene. The first 20 items are
measured by a Likert-type scale which asks respondents to indicate their
degree of agreement with a statement related to that dimension of job
satisfaction. Five response possibilities (strongly agree, agree, undecided,
disagree or strongly disagree) are provided for each item. The responses are
weighted from five to one in descending order so that strongly agree is
assigned a maximum of five points while strongly disagree is assigned a
minimum of one point. The 21st dimension, general job satisfaction, is
interpreted as an aggregate of scores in the 20 dimensions measured
separately. The three scales of the short-form MSQ consist of the items
illustrated in Figure 10 (Weiss et al., 1967, p. 4).
65
Scale
Items
Intrinsic
1 23 4789 1011 1516 20
Extrinsic
5 612131419
General Satisfactions
1-20
Figure 10. Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire Scales
The most meaningful way to interpret the MSQ is to use the most appropriate
norm group for the individual and then to use percentile scores for each scale
obtained for the norm group. The most appropriate norm group would be
one that corresponds exactly to the individual's job. As norm groups are not
available for all occupational areas, a similar norm group which shares
characteristics such as tasks performed, type of supervision, physical working
conditions and so on, may be used. If no appropriate norm group has yet
been developed, the MSQ raw scores can be converted to percentile scores
using Employed Disabled or Employed Non-disabled norms. Finally, MSQ
raw scores for all scales can be interpreted by ranking them. This will indicate
areas of relatively greater or lesser job satisfaction (Weiss et al., p. 4-5). When
used with an individual subject, percentile scores of 75 or greater generally
represent a high level of job satisfaction, scores in the 26 to 74 percentile range
indicate average satisfaction, and a percentile score of 25 or lower indicates a
low level of satisfaction.
The current MSQ manual reports norms for seven occupational groups
for the short-form MSQ. Based on educational requirements for employment
(college degree and/or additional education or training), years of employment
in the profession and years in current position, the norm group for engineers
is the most useful comparison for the norms which emerge from this
research study.
66
Validity for the short-form MSQ is inferred, in part, from validity for
the long-form as the short-form is based on a subset of the long-form. That is,
the short-form MSQ was developed by choosing 20 items, each representative
of one of the 20 scales on the long-form MSQ. Those items correlating most
frequently with a respective scale were selected. A group of 1,460 employed
individuals completed the measure. A factor-analysis of the resulting data
yielded two factors, intrinsic satisfaction and extrinsic satisfaction. The 12
items that loaded high on one factor constitute the Intrinsic Scale. Six factors
constitute the Extrinsic Scale and all 20 items constitute the General
Satisfaction Scale. This allows for scores on all three scales.
The construct validity of the MSQ is primarily derived from the fact
that it generally performs according to theoretical expectations. Construct
validation studies of other questionnaires, based on the Theory of Work
Adjustment and developed through the Work Adjustment Project, support
this conclusion.
Additional evidence supporting the validity of the short-form MSQ is
provided by studies of group differences by occupation and studies on the
relationship between job satisfaction and satisfactoriness. Occupational group
differences in mean satisfaction scores for the seven available norm groups
were statistically significant for each of the three scales.
The Hoyt reliability coefficients for each norm group and each short-
form scale were reported to be, in general, high. For the Intrinsic Scale, they
ranged from .84 (assemblers and electrical assemblers) to .91 (engineers). The
Extrinsic Scale range was .77 (electrical assemblers) to .82 (engineers and
machinists). The range for the General Satisfaction Scale was .87 (assemblers)
to .92 (engineers). The median reliability coefficients were .86 for the Intrinsic
Satisfaction Scale, .80 for the Extrinsic Satisfaction Scale, and .90 for the
General Satisfaction Scale.
67
The stability of scores obtained from the short-form MSQ is currently
being studied but no data have, as yet, been reported. However, data on the
General Satisfaction Score for the long-form MSQ show correlations of .89 for
a one-week test-retest period and .70 for a one-year test-retest interval.
Stability for the General Satisfaction Score of the short-form MSQ may be
inferred from these data.
Research on both forms of the MSQ continues, focusing on improving
the psychometric characteristics of the scales and expanding the range of
dimensions which may be measured by the MSQ. A 30-scale form has been
developed and is being tested. Finally, researchers using the MSQ agree to
report results to be used in the development of new norm tables. Results of
this study will be reported to the Work Adjustment Project at the University
of Minnesota for possible use as another occupational norm group for the
short-form MSQ.
Statistical Procedures
The data gathered for the study were analyzed within the context of
each of the research questions set forth in Chapter I.
The Marcus Paul Placement Profile was analyzed using the MPPP
software. The procedures for the analysis are well-validated. Scaled scores
were calculated and scores were plotted on a graph.
The scores for all 202 subjects were then analyzed by computer to
determine the number of subjects in each type, with these numbers further
divided into male and female sub-groups. The percentile of type by total and
by sex was calculated.
The responses to the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire were
analyzed using the FACTOR procedure which provides several types of
common factor and component analysis. Preliminary factor procedures were
68
done which resulted in loadings on three, four and five factors. The three
factor loading was selected. The Promax rotation was used to report the
results. The purpose of the factor analysis was to allow responses to be
characterized as motivators or hygienes.
The mean score and standard deviation for each of the 20 items on the
MSQ, the mean score and standard deviation for the Intrinsic Scale, the
Extrinsic Scale and General Satisfaction Scale and the mean score and
standard deviation for each item and the three scales by type were calculated.
The CANCORR Procedure was used to produce canonical correlations.
This is a technique used for analyzing the relationship between two sets of
variables, each of which can contain several individual variables. The
canonical correlation procedure was used to determine the relationship of
work behavior type scores revealed by the MSQ to the motivators and
hygienes identified through the factor analysis of the MSQ.
Summary of Design and Methodology
This chapter outlined the procedures of the study. Data were collected
from academic librarians employed in Florida for the purpose of determining
relationships among work behavior type, work environment and job
satisfaction. The Marcus Paul Placement Profile and the Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire were selected as the instruments used to measure
each of these areas. Data treatment methods utilized were frequency
distribution, factor analysis and canonical correlation. The following chapter
presents the results and analysis of these data.
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
The problem of this study was to determine the relationship of the
theory that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are affected by motivators
and hygienes to the theory that motivators and hygienes are perceived
differently by different work behavior types. In addition to describing the
sample population, the chapter contains the results of the study and provides
answers to the research questions posed in Chapter I.
Description of the Sample Population
The sample population in this study was comprised of 350 individuals
selected from the membership of the Association of College and Research
Libraries, a division of the American Library Association, and the Academic
Caucus of the Florida Library Association. A limited number were members
of other divisions of the American Library Association. All prospective
participants were members of one or more of these Associations. The criteria
for the use of data received from respondents included current employment
in an academic library in Florida and holding a Master in Library Science
(MLS) degree or an appropriate other degree (for example, Master in
Librarianship, Master in Media or Master in Information Science.) The
master's degree is the generally required professional degree for employment
as an academic librarian; the actual name of the degree may vary according to
the awarding institution or individual program emphasis.
69
70
An academic library was defined as a library in a post-baccalaureate
institution, including community or junior college, college or university, as
well as special libraries connected with post-baccalaureate institutions. Thus,
respondents worked in all levels of higher education and in both large and
small schools. Correspondingly, the libraries in which they were employed
ranged from those with a staff of five or fewer to those employing 100 or
more. However, the commonality of employment as an academic librarian
was viewed as more basic to the selection of the study sample than individual
differences in institution or specific professional responsibilities. All subjects
for whom data were used were currently employed academic librarians in
Florida who showed an orientation and commitment to the profession
through active participation in one or more major professional
organizations.
Of the 350 subjects contacted, 258 or 73.7 percent responded. One
response option requested subjects to return blank forms if they did not wish
to be included in the study. A group of 15 people, or 4.3 percent of the subject
pool, selected this option. Another 16 individuals, or 4.6 percent, responded
that they were retired. An additional 18 people, 5.1 percent, responded that
they were not eligible and reported a variety of reasons including having left
the profession, having left Florida for employment in another state, returned
to graduate school or not presently being employed in an academic library.
Finally, seven respondents, or 2.0 percent, returned incomplete or invalid sets
of measures and were eliminated from the data analysis. In addition, 92
individuals, or 26.3 percent, did not respond in any way. The data analysis
thus involved complete responses from 202 individuals, or 57.7 percent, of
the initial sample of 350 (Table 1).
71
Table 1
Response to Survey
Type of Response
N
Percent
Usable Responses
202
57.7
No Response
92
26.3
Other
18
5.1
Retired
16
4.6
Blank Forms Returned
15
4.3
Invalid Responses
7
3.0
Total
350
100.0
The data on the academic librarians obtained from the demographic
section of the MSQ and the supplementary data form are summarized in
Table 2. Female subjects accounted for 71.78 percent of the usable responses,
or 145 of 202 subjects, while the 57 male respondents constituted 28.22 percent
of the usable responses. The largest percentage, 39.6 percent or 80 subjects,
had been in their current position for 2 to 5 years while 22.28 percent, or 45
subjects had been in their current position for 6 to 10 years. Over 85 percent of
the subjects had been in the profession for 6 years or more, a sufficient time to
evaluate their employment, attain promotions, or change specific jobs one or
more times. This corresponds with the fact that over 84 percent of the
subjects were aged 40 and over. Thus, the individuals whose responses were
included in the data analysis were, for the most part, mature, experienced
academic librarians.
The largest number (142 or 70.3 percent) reported that they were
currently employed in a university library. Another 31, or 15.35 percent, were
72
employed in a community college, while 20, or 9.0 percent, were employed at
a 4-year college.
All subjects held an appropriate masters degree for their particular
position with 55, or 27.23 percent, holding one or more additional masters
degrees and 25, or 12.38 percent, holding a Ph.D. or Ed.D. degree with the
Ph.D. predominant in this latter group.
Research Questions
Question 1: What are the work behavior types (WBT) of academic
librarians in Florida as measured by the Marcus Paul Placement Profile
(MPPP)?
The frequency distribution of work behavior types found among
academic librarians in Florida is shown in Table 3. Overall, 45.54 percent, or
92 individuals were concentrators. Of these, 65 were female (44.83 percent of
the 145 female subjects) while 27, or 47.37 percent, of the 57 male subjects
showed concentrator as their dominant work behavior type.
The second largest group were producers with 77 individuals or 38.12
percent of the total sample. Sixty females, or 41.38 percent of their total, and
17 males, or 29.82 percent of their total, constituted this group. Together,
those individuals with either concentrator or producer as their dominant
work behavior type totaled 167 or 83.66 percent of the total sample of 202.
By comparison, previous studies of members of a variety of professions
showed quite different results. Glen (1982/1983) sampled vocational educa¬
tional administrators. She found 47 percent concentrators, 25 percent pro¬
ducers, 21 percent inducers and 7 percent energizers. Wellstood (1984/1985),
who studied medical technologists, reported 33.3 percent concentrators, 52.3
percent producers, 7.2 percent inducers and 7.2 percent energizers.
73
Table 2
Characteristics of the Participating Academic Librarians
Characteristic
N
Percent
A. Gender
Male
57
28.22
Female
145
71.78
B. Age
<30
5
2.48
30-39
28
13.86
40-49
94
46.53
50-59
46
22.77
>59
18
8.91
No response
11
5.45
C. Education Level
Master in Library Science
202
100.00
or appropriate equivalent
Additional Masters degree
55
27.23
Doctoral Degree
Ph.D.
19
9.40
Ed.D.
6
3.00
Other advanced degree or certification
8
3.96
D. Years in Current Position
<2
32
15.84
2-5
80
39.60
6-10
45
22.28
11-20
29
14.36
21-30
12
5.94
>30
2
.99
No response
2
.99
E. Total Years in Profession
<2
3
1.49
2-5
26
12.87
6-10
29
14.36
11-20
74
36.63
21-30
55
27.23
>30
12
5.94
No response
3
1.49
F. Current Employment by Type of Institution
Community/Junior College
31
15.35
College
20
9.90
University
142
70.30
Other
9
4.45
74
Table 3
Work Behavior Type by Gender
Row variable: work behavior type as percentage of same sex respondents
Column variable: work behavior type as percentage of same type respondents
Cell format: frequency/ percent: total/percent: row/ percent: column
Gender
Concentrator
Energizer
Inducer
Producer
Total
Female
65
9
11
60
145
32.18
4.46
5.45
29.70
71.78
44.83
6.21
7.59
41.38
70.65
64.29
57.89
77.92
Male
27
5
8
17
57
13.37
2.48
3.96
8.42
28.22
47.37
8.77
14.04
29.82
29.35
35.71
42.11
22.08
Total
92
14
19
77
202
45.54
6.93
9.41
38.12
100.00
Poston (1988/1989) sampled nursing faculty and found that 39.13 percent were
concentrators, 36.96 percent producers, 17.39 percent inducers and 6.52 percent
energizers. Olson (1988/1990) studied college placement officers. In this
group he found 15 percent to be concentrators, 11 percent producers, 67
percent inducers and 7 percent energizers. Barber (1989/1990) examined the
work behavior types of Cooperative Extension Service mid-managers and
found them to be more evenly divided among the four categories, with
concentrators making up 31.8 percent, producers 28.2 percent, inducers 24.5
percent and energizers 15.5 percent.
The distribution of work behavior types of academic librarians is
skewed toward concentrators and producers, as can be observed in Table 3.
75
According to the MPPP user manual, approximately 60 percent of the general
population are either concentrators or producers, with producers dominating.
In this study it was found that academic librarians are almost 84 percent
concentrators and producers, but concentrators are predominant. Female
academic librarians are even more predominantly producers or concentrators
(86 percent), again with concentrators, about 45 percent, dominating. By
contrast, the male academic librarians are 77 percent concentrators or
producers, although concentrator is still the largest group, accounting for 47
percent of the male subjects.
Those who are categorized as concentrators and producers are most
likely to work to maintain their organization in its present form. They tend
to follow the rules and regulations of the organization and can be relied upon
to do the job assigned to them. In contrast, energizers and inducers, who
represent about 20 percent each of the general population, tend to seek to alter
the system and to effect change in their organization (Bauch, 1981).
Energizers are represented in this study by 6.93 percent of the subjects (6.21
percent of the females and 8.77 percent of the males) while inducers account
for 9.41 percent of the subjects or 7.59 percent of the females and 14.04 percent
of the males. Thus, concentrators and producers are represented in
substantially higher numbers among academic librarians than in the general
population and the results on the MPPP support the theory that different
work behavior types are attracted to different professions.
Question 2: What are the motivators and hygienes perceived by
academic librarians in Florida as reported on the Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire (MSQ)?
The MSQ has 20 items which are divided into Intrinsic, or job content
items, and Extrinsic, or job context, items. These are closely analogous to
Herzberg's classic motivators and hygienes. The short-form MSQ used in this
76
study generates three scores; that is, an Intrinsic score, an Extrinsic score and a
General Satisfaction, or Total score. Higher scores by area or a higher total
score imply a greater degree of job satisfaction either with job content or job
context or in general. Further, scores for individual items are presented
allowing for more specific analysis.
Table 4 presents the mean score and standard deviation for each item.
The scores are presented for each work behavior type along with the score for
the total sample population.
As shown on Table 4, inducers had the lowest mean score on 11 of the
20 items, producers had the lowest mean score on 7 of the items while
energizers had the lowest mean score on one item. Inducers and producers
had identical mean scores on one item. On 19 of 20 items, concentrator mean
scores were above the total mean; producer mean scores were below the total
mean on all 20 items. The lowest individual mean score per type was item 13
for concentrators (pay and amount of work), item 14 for energizers (chances
for advancement) and item 12 (how company policies are put into place) for
inducers and producers.
Although the mean score differences are not particularly large, they
reveal a pattern. Concentrators, the largest number of subjects, are consis¬
tently more satisfied with all aspects of their position, followed closely by
energizers, the smallest numbers of subjects. Inducers and producers consis¬
tently show the lowest mean scores per item with the exception of item 18
(relationship of co-workers with each other), the only item on which one of
these two types did not show the lowest mean score.
Table 4
Mean Score and Standard Deviation by Item. Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Short Form).
MSQ Item and Job Characteristic
Concentrator
Std.
Mean Dev.
Energizer
Std.
Mean Dev.
Inducer
Std.
Mean Dev.
Producer
Std.
Mean Dev
Total
Std.
Mean Dev.
*1. Ability to keep busy
4.34
0.84
4.50
0.52
4.37
1.01
4.25*
0.93
4.32
0.87
*2. Chance to work alone
4.12
0.84
4.36
0.74
4.11*
0.74
4.13
0.89
4.14
0.84
*3. Opportunity to do something different from time to time
4.35
0.79
4.57
0.51
4.47
051
4.22»
0.82
4.33
0.77
*4. Chance to be "somebody" in the community
3.77
0.93
3.93
0.92
4.00
0.82
3.13*
0.99
3.56
1.00
o5. How the boss handles his/her workers
3.45
1.19
3.21
1.25
2.95 •
1.27
3.07
1.24
3.24
1.23
06. Supervisor's decision-making ability
3.50
1.18
357
1.09
3.21»
1.44
3.40
1.08
3.44
1.16
*7. Being able to do things that don't go against my conscience
4.22
0.80
4.07
1.07
3.74*
0.99
3.94
1.00
4.05
0.93
*8. Job provides steady employment
4.40
0.84
4.36
0.84
4.21*
0.98
4.23
0.77
4.32
0.83
*9. Opportunity to do things for others
4.39
0.74
4.50
0.85
4.53
0.84
4.14»
0.76
4.32
0.77
*10. Opportunity to tell people what to do
3.51
0.78
3.50
1.09
3.26*
0.87
3.44
0.70
3.46
0.78
*11. Chance to do something that makes use of my abilities
4.24
0.93
4.29
0.91
3.95
0.91
3.83»
1.06
4.06
0.99
012. How company policies are put into practice
3.08
1.02
3.00
1.24
1.89»+ 0.81
2.56+
1.14
2.76
1.12
013. My pay and the amount of work I do
2.88+
1.20
2.64
1.34
2.47»
1.26
2.61
1.28
2.72
1.25
014. Chances for advancement
2.90
1.24
2.57+
1.16
2.42»
1.12
2.66
1.14
2.74
1.19
*15. Freedom to use my own judgement
4.13
0.89
4.07
1.20
3.84»
0.76
3.84»
1.02
3.99
0.96
*16. Opportunity to try my own methods
4.11
0.80
4.29
0.91
4.00
0.67
3.86»
1.06
4.01
0.91
17. Working conditions
3.80
0.99
3.86
1.17
3.16*
1.21
3.30
1.16
3.55
1.11
18. Relationships of co-workers with each other
3.58
1.05
2.93*
1.07
3.53
1.22
3.44
1.08
3.48
1.08
0I9. Praise I get for doing a good job
3.37
1.21
3.43
1.28
2.95 •
0.91
3.08
1.16
3.22
1.17
*20. Feeling of accomplishment I get
4.11 0.90
(n=92)
4.21 0.97
(n=14)
4.00 1.00
(n=19)
3.64» 1.14
(n=77)
3.93 1.03
(N=202)
Notes: * Intrinsic items; 12 with score range 12-60. 0 Extrinsic items; 6 with score range 6-30. + Lowest mean score for each
type. • Lowest mean score for each item. Total score: 20 items with score range 20-100
78
Table 5 presents means and standard deviations for the Intrinsic score,
the Extrinsic score and the Total score by type and for the entire sample. The
means for concentrators and energizers are both above the total mean while
the means for inducers and producers are below the total mean. This is
consistent for both Intrinsic and Extrinsic scores.
Table 5
Mean Score and Standard Deviation for Intrinsic, Extrinsic and Total Scores
on the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Short Form)
Work
Behavior Type
Intrinsic Items
Mean Std. Dev.
Extrinsic Items
Mean Std. Dev.
Total by Type
Mean Std. Dev.
Concentrator
49.68
6.54
19.16
5.1
76.23
11.94
Energizer
50.64
7.04
18.43
5.49
75.86
13.24
Inducer
48.47
6.21
15.89
4.05
71.05
9.03
Producer
46.65
7.24
17.39
4.97
70.78
12.55
Total: All Groups
48.48
6.94
18.13
5.07
73.64
12.25
Note: Intrinsic score range 12-60 for 12 items; Extrinsic score range 6-20 for 6
items; Total score range 20-100 for 20 items.
The lowest mean score for intrinsic items, or those related to job
content, is that of the producers while the lowest mean score for extrinsic, or
job context, items is that of the inducers. Overall, concentrators had the
highest total mean score, 2.59 above the all group total, while producers had
the lowest total mean score, 2.86 below the group total.
Question Three: Do factors derived from a factor analysis of the MSQ
show characteristics of motivators and hygienes?
79
In Herzberg's two-factor theory of job satisfaction/job dissatisfaction,
motivators correspond to Maslow's higher-order needs. They are intrinsic or
job content factors, such as achievement, recognition, advancement,
responsibility and the inherent interest of the work itself. When these factors
are present in a job, they act as satisfiers because they have a positive effect on
employee job satisfaction and they may function to provide the individual
with personal psychological growth.
Hygienes correspond to Maslow's lower-order needs and are extrinsic,
or job context factors, such as pay, security, supervision and physical working
conditions. When absent from a job, these items are linked to job
dissatisfaction.
The MSQ provides an Intrinsic, or job content, and an Extrinsic, or job
context, score. As indicated on Table 4, the intrinsic items on the MSQ are
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16 and 20. With the exception of 2
(freedom to work alone) and 8 (opportunity for steady employment), two of
Herzberg's hygienes, these items all correspond to Herzberg motivators. The
extrinsic, or job context items, on the MSQ are numbers 5, 6, 12, 13, 14 and 19.
The first 4 and 19 correspond to Herzberg hygienes. The exception is 14
(advancement on current job). Numbers 17 (working conditions) and 18
(relationships of co-workers) correspond to Herzberg hygienes. In the MSQ,
they contribute to an overall general score.
Table 6 shows factor loadings on the MSQ. Factor I includes items 5, 6,
12, 19, 18, 17, 13 and 8. These all correspond to Herzberg hygienes, or job
context items, with the exception of the last item, number 8 (steady
employment), which has the lowest factor loading for Factor I, 0.308. In MSQ
scoring, number 8 is characterized as an Intrinsic item. The other items in
Factor I are part of the Extrinsic score.
80
Table 6
Factor Loading on Tob Satisfaction Items from the Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire (Short Form)
MSQ
Item Number
Factor I
Factor II
Factor III
5
0.70157
-0.13713
0.11158
6
0.69630
-0.22041
0.11110
12
0.59752
0.09730
-0.03583
19
0.57007
0.21418
-0.13415
18
0.47441
0.11522
-0.08747
17
0.45858
0.16487
0.18808
13
0.38671
0.29018
-0.12743
8
0.30778
0.10257
0.06334
9
-0.00164
0.63928
-0.10148
11
-0.04466
0.55972
0.29152
10
-0.02269
0.52428
-0.02346
20
0.16444
0.47476
0.20258
4
0.10487
0.47332
0.15867
14
0.31146
0.44883
-0.13036
3
-0.11126
0.42545
0.37365
2
0.00205
-0.22953
0.71932
1
-0.15959
0.16746
0.53505
7
0.29114
0.16151
0.44019
15
0.12019
0.26234
0.41843
16
0.16303
0.26466
0.40113
N=202
Notes: Factor I (items 5, 6,12,19,18,17,13,8); Factor II (items 9,11,10,20,4,
14, 3); Factor III (items 2,1, 7,15,16); Variance explained by: Factor I, 2.639930;
Factor II, 2.306518; Factor III, 1.759460.
81
Factor II includes items 9, 11, 20, 4, 10, 14 and 3 which are all Herzberg
motivators, or job content items. They are all part of the MSQ Intrinsic score,
except number 14 (opportunity for advancement). This item shows a loading
of 0.449 in Factor II and a loading of 0.311 in Factor I.
Factor III includes items 2, 1, 7, 15, and 16. They all form part of the
MSQ Intrinsic score and, except for item 2 (opportunity to work alone) are all
Herzberg motivators.
Thus, the factors derived from a factor analysis of the MSQ do show
characteristics of motivators and hygienes. Factor I includes eight MSQ items,
all related to Herzberg hygienes. Factor II includes seven items which all
relate to Herzberg motivators. Finally, Factor III includes five items, four of
which are motivators while one is a hygiene.
Question 4: Do the different work behavior type scores of academic
librarians in Florida, as measured by the MPPP, relate differently to the
motivator and hygiene scores derived from the MSQ?
In order to analyze the relationship between scores on the MSQ and
work behavior types, the technique of canonical correlation was employed.
Given two sets of variables, a computer analysis finds a linear combination
from each set, the canonical variable, which leads to the maximization of the
correlation between the two canonical variables. This results in the first
canonical correlation. "The coefficients of the linear combinations are
canonical coefficients or canonical weights. It is customary to normalize the
canonical coefficients so that each canonical variable has a variance of one."
(SAS/STAT User's Guide. 1989, p. 368). The procedure then finds a second set
of canonical variables, a third, and so on, until the number of pairs of
canonical variables equals the number of variables in the smallest group. The
variables which follow the first canonical variable are not correlated with the
first pair nor are any subsequent canonical variables. This is, "each canonical
82
variable is not correlated with all the other canonical variables of either set
except for the one corresponding canonical variable in the opposite set"
(ibid.). Finally, the first canonical correlation will be at least as large as the
multiple correlation between any variable and an opposite set of variables.
The correlations between individual items on the Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire and the four work behavior types as determined by
the Marcus Paul Placement Profile are shown in Table 7.
The correlations between the four work behavior types and individual
items on the MSQ are weak with the largest in absolute value being a
negative correlation (-0.2772) between Producer and MSQ item four, "chance
to be somebody in the community."
Following the factor analysis procedure on the MSQ, correlations
between work behavior type and the three factors derived from the MSQ were
established. These are illustrated in Table 8. Again, the correlations are weak.
The largest in absolute value is 0.1952 for Concentrator to Factor I (hygiene or
job context items; elements in the MSQ extrinsic score). This is closely
followed by a negative correlation (-0.1944) for Producer to Factor II
(motivator or job content items, elements in the MSQ Intrinsic Score).
The within-set correlations are larger as can be seen in Table 9 with the
largest in absolute value being 0.6798 for Factor II to Factor III. Closely
following is a negative correlation, -0.6769, for Concentrator to Energizer.
The canonical correlations of the three factors and the four work
behavior types are shown in Table 10.
83
Table 7
Simple Correlations Between MSQ Items and Work Behavior Types
MSQ Item
Concentrator
Energizer
Inducer
Producer
1
-0.0463
0.0956
0.0728
-0.0715
2
-0.0877
0.0883
0.0464
-0.0809
3
0.0361
-0.2160
0.1254
-0.1169
4
0.0541
0.0746
0.2260
-0.2772
5
0.1145
-0.1086
0.0217
-0.0169
6
0.1042
-0.0989
-0.0402
-0.0536
7
0.1149
-0.0592
0.0799
-0.0625
8
0.0685
-0.0194
0.0828
-0.0769
9
0.1349
-0.0027
0.1739
-0.2259
10
0.0419
0.0256
-0.0338
0.0234
11
0.1853
-0.0225
0.0341
-0.1328
12
0.1703
-0.0821
-0.0553
-0.0094
13
0.1243
-0.0848
0.0349
-0.0438
14
0.1747
-0.1155
0.0577
-0.0050
15
0.1352
-0.0204
0.0129
-0.0867
16
0.1061
-0.0051
0.0596
-0.1197
17
0.1704
-0.0440
0.0124
-0.0994
18
0.1170
-0.1206
0.0662
0.0128
19
0.1767
-0.0808
0.0314
-0.0535
20
0.1478
0.0049
0.1221
-0.2368
Table 8
Correlation Between the Three Factors on the MSQ and Work Behavior Type
Concentrator
Energizer
Inducer
Producer
Factor I
0.1952
-0.1210
0.0251
-0.0406
Factor II
0.1640
-0.0170
0.1415
-0.1944
Factor III
0.0671
0.0241
0.0746
-0.1167
84
Table 9
Within-Set Correlations Among the Original Variables
Factors Derived from the MSQ
I
I
n
in
1.0000
0.6398
0.5987
n
0.6398
1.0000
0.6798*
m
0.5987
0.6798*
1.0000
Work Behavior Types Determined by the MPPP
Energizer
Inducer
Concentrator
Producer
Energizer
1.0000
0.0860
-0.6769*
-0.5249
Inducer
0.0860
1.0000
-0.2839
-0.6160
Concentrator
-0.6769*
-0.2839
1.0000
0.1599
Producer
-0.5249
-0.6160
0.1599
1.0000
Note: * = Largest Within-Set Correlations
Table 10
Canonical Correlations of Factors and Work Behavior Types
Canonical
Correlation
Likelihood
Ratio
Approx.
F
Num.
DF
Den
DF
Pr>F
1
0.307768
0.87429520
2.2406
12
516.213
0.0092
2
0.183698
0.96577476
1.1476
6
392.000
0.3340
3
0.022292
0.99950308
0.0490
2
197.000
0.9522
p = .05
85
The first canonical correlation is 0.3078. The first squared canonical
correlation is 0.0947. The probability level for the first canonical correlation is
0.0092. Thus, the first canonical correlation is significantly different from zero
at the .05 level. The second and third canonical correlations were not
considered as probability levels provided no evidence that they are different
from zero.
Table 11
First Canonical Correlational Analysis: Canonical Coefficients
Standardized Canonical Coefficients
MSQ Factors
Canonical Variables
1
2
3
I
0.0074
-1.3271
0.2966
n
1.1689
0.4286
-0.8096
m
-0.2881
0.6935
1.2111
Work Behavior Type
Canonical Variables
1
2
3
Energizer
0.6984
1.0139
1.3896
Inducer
0.7709
0.4893
-0.1832
Concentrator
1.2547
0.0135
1.0727
Producer
0.0106
0.2308
0.6267
Table 12
First Canonical Correlational Analysis: Canonical Structure
Correlations Between MSQ Factor Variables and
MSQ Factor Canonical Variables
MSQ Factors
1
2
3
I
0.5287
-0.6377
0.5038
n
0.9778
0.0509
0.2035
m
0.5109
0.1902
0.8383
Correlations Between WBT Variables and
WBT Canonical Variables
Work Behavior
Type
1
2
3
Energizer
-0.0901
0.9256
0.3188
Inducer
0.4683
0.4305
-0.7541
Concentrator
0.5648
-0.7747
0.2844
Producer
-0.6302
-0.6006
0.1816
86
As shown on Table 11, the first canonical variable for the MSQ factor
variables is a weighted difference of FACTOR II (1.1689) and FACTOR III
(-0.2881) with more emphasis on FACTOR II. The coefficient for FACTOR I is
near zero. In Table 12, the correlations between FACTORS I, II and III are all
positive. FACTOR III is a suppressor variable as its coefficient and correlation
have opposite signs. A suppressor variable enhances the correlation between
the other variables.
In Table 11, the first canonical variable for the work behavior type
variables indicates greatest emphasis on Concentrator (1.2547), followed by
Inducer (0.7709) and Energizer (0.6984). The coefficient for Producer is near
zero. Two of the correlations between work behavior type, as shown in Table
12, are positive, Inducer (0.4683) and Concentrator (0.5648) while one,
Producer, is negative (-0.6302) and Energizer, although near zero, is also
negative. Thus, for work behavior type, Energizer and Producer are
suppressor variables.
The general interpretation of the first canonical correlation is,
therefore, that FACTOR III and Producer act as suppressor variables to
enhance the correlation between FACTOR II and Concentrator. Factor II
includes seven items which are all Herzberg motivators (job content). Six of
the seven are part of the MSQ Intrinsic Score. Concentrators, the largest work
behavior type group, have the highest total mean score, 76.23, on the MSQ.
The canonical redundancy analysis shows that neither of the first pair
of canonical variables is a good overall predictor of the opposite set of
variables. The cumulative proportion of variance explained by the first
FACTOR canonical variable to the first Work Behavior Type canonical
variable is 0.0491 while the cumulative proportion of variance of the first
Work Behavior Type canonical variable explained by the first FACTOR
canonical variable is even lower at 0.0223.
87
The squared multiple correlations indicate very limited predictive
power. The first canonical variable of the FACTORS has minor predictive
power for FACTOR II (0.0906), less for FACTOR I (0.0322), and even less for
FACTOR III (0.0247). The first canonical variable of Work Behavior Type
shows almost no predictive power with the highest correlation, Producer
(0.0376), followed by Concentrator (0.0302) and Inducer (0.0208). Energizer is
almost zero; this was also the smallest sample group (n=14), followed by
Inducer (n=19).
In addition to determining correlations between work behavior type
and the 3 factors derived from the MSQ, a second set of canonical correlations
was established between the 20 individual MSQ items and the 4 work
behavior types. The correlations between individual MSQ items and Work
Behavior Type are shown on Table 13.
As with the correlations displayed in Table 7 and Table 8, the
correlations are weak. The largest in absolute value is MSQ item 4 (social
status) to Producer (-0.2772) followed by MSQ item 20 (achievement) to
Producer (-0.2368) and MSQ item 4 (social status) to Inducer (0.2260).
The canonical correlations of the 20 MSQ items and the 4 work
behavior types are shown in Table 14. The first canonical correlation is 0.4457;
squared, it is 0.1986. The probability level for the first canonical correlation is
0.0824. Thus, there is some evidence that the correlation is different from
zero at the .05 level. The remaining correlations were not considered further
as probability levels provided no evidence that they are significantly different
from zero.
As shown in Table 15, the first canonical variable for the MSQ item
variables is a weighted difference of items 3 (-0.1196), 6 (-0.4239), 10 (-0.2798), 11
(-0.2088), 12 (-0.3533) and 15 (-0.2053) and items 4 (0.6927), 5 (0.1859), 9 (0.3205),
88
16 (0.1868), 17 (0.1464) and 20 (0.6094). The coefficients for items 1, 2, 7, 8, 18
and 19 are near zero.
Table 13
Correlations Between the MSP Items and Work Behavior Type
MSQ Item
Energizer
Inducer
Concentrator
Producer
1
0.0956
0.0728
-0.0463
-0.0715
2
0.0883
0.0464
-0.0877
-0.0809
3
-0.0216
0.1254
0.0361
-0.1169
4
0.0746
0.2260
0.0541
-0.2772
5
-0.1086
0.0217
0.1145
-0.0169
6
-0.0989
-0.0402
0.1042
-0.0536
7
-0.0592
0.0799
0.1149
-0.0625
8
-0.0194
0.0828
0.0685
-0.0769
9
-0.0027
0.1739
0.1349
-0.2259
10
0.0256
-0.0338
0.0419
0.0234
11
-0.0225
0.0341
0.1853
-0.1328
12
-0.0821
-0.0553
0.1703
-0.0094
13
-0.0848
0.0349
0.1243
-0.0438
14
-0.1155
0.0577
0.1747
-0.0050
15
-0.0204
0.0129
0.1352
-0.0867
16
-0.0051
0.0596
0.1061
-0.1197
17
-0.0440
0.0124
0.1704
-0.0994
18
-0.1206
0.0662
0.1170
0.0128
19
-0.0808
0.0314
0.1767
-0.0535
20
0.0049
0.1221
0.1478
-0.2368
Table 14
Canonical Correlations of MSP Items and Work Behavior Type
Canonical
Likelihood
Approx.
Num.
Den
Correlation
Ratio
F
DF
DF
Pr>F
1
0.445665
0.59386556
1.2438
80
704.6091
0.0824
2
0.353930
0.54105121
0.9916
57
534.5465
0.4959
3
0.304046
0.84717359
0.8646
36
360.0000
0.6943
4
0.257940
0.93346691
0.7589
17
181.0000
0.7381
p = .05
89
Table 15
Second Canonical Correlational Analysis: Canonical Coefficients
Standardized Canonical Coefficients
MSQ Item
1
2
3
4
1
-0.0854
-0.1367
0.0356
0.4333
2
-0.0696
-0.4110
-0.0516
0.1491
3
-0.1196
-0.3429
-0.0560
-0.5226
4
0.6927
-0.3876
0.3857
0.3027
5
0.1859
-0.2389
-0.1382
-0.6564
6
-0.4239
0.1199
-0.0683
0.0682
7
0.0574
0.1571
0.3907
-0.3202
8
0.0817
0.0111
0.0469
-0.0307
9
0.3205
0.1239
0.0519
-0.0116
10
-0.2798
-0.0729
0.2207
0.3438
11
-0.2088
0.8486
-0.2404
0.2390
12
-0.3533
0.2533
-0.3645
0.2249
13
-0.0529
0.1024
-0.1504
-0.2740
14
-0.0734
0.2744
0.5954
-0.3223
15
-0.2053
0.2744
-0.2746
0.3373
16
0.1868
-0.2418
0.1245
-0.0053
17
0.1464
0.2057
-0.3360
0.2788
18
-0.0762
0.0882
0.4636
-0.3095
19
0.0493
0.2249
0.0976
0.3288
20
0.6094
-0.3335
-0.5026
-0.2628
Canonical Variables
Work Behavior
Type
1
2
3
4
Energizer
0.0850
0.7549
1.6485
1.7854
Inducer
0.3756
0.3739
1.9233
0.2201
Concentrator
0.3969
1.4591
1.1593
0.9162
Producer
-0.7171
0.6544
2.0194
0.7173
90
In Table 16, the correlations between MSQ items are all positive with
the exception of items 6 and 10. The canonical variables for Work Behavior
Type, shown in Table 15, indicate greatest emphasis on Producer (-0.7171)
followed by Concentrator (0.3969) and Inducer (0.3756). The coefficient for
Energizer is near zero. Three of the correlations between Work Behavior
Type, shown in Table 16, are positive, Energizer (0.2251), Inducer (0.7120) and
Concentrator (0.1181) while one, Producer is negative (-0.9296). As coefficient
and correlation signs are the same, there are no suppressor variables to
enhance the correlation between the other variables.
The canonical redundancy analysis shows that neither of the first pair
of these canonical variables is a good overall predictor of the opposite set of
variables. The cumulative proportion of variance explained by the first MSQ
item canonical variable to the first work behavior type canonical variable is
0.0215, while the cumulative proportion of the variance of the first work
behavior type canonical variable explained by the first MSQ factor variable is
0.0713.
The squared multiple correlations indicate very limited predictive
power. The first canonical variable of the MSQ items has minor predictive
power for item 4 (social status, 0.0970), less for item 9 (social service, 0.0787)
and still less for item 20 (achievement, 0.0755). The remaining items show
even lower predictive power. The first canonical variable of WBT shows
minor predictive power for the Producer correlation (0.1716), followed by
Inducer (0.1007). There is almost no predictive power for Energizer (0.0101).
Concentrator, the largest subject group, is almost zero (0.0028). Thus, both the
first MSQ item canonical variables and the first WBT canonical variable show
only slight predictive power.
91
Table 16
Second Canonical Correlational Analysis: Canonical Structure
Correlations Between MSQ Item Variables and
MSQ Item Canonical Variables
MSQ Item
1
2
3
4
1
0.1533
-0.0424
0.3274
0.3605
2
0.1080
-0.2738
-0.0992
0.1145
3
0.3218
0.0189
0.0372
-0.2394
4
0.6988
0.1082
0.1994
0.1306
5
0.1267
0.2318
-0.1277
-0.3739
6
-0.0462
0.2752
-0.0371
-0.1998
7
0.2591
0.3165
0.2077
-0.1069
8
0.2509
0.1863
0.1687
-0.0342
9
0.6296
0.3165
0.0996
-0.0191
10
-0.0240
0.2348
0.2400
0.3620
11
0.4031
0.5065
-0.0816
0.1626
12
0.1044
0.4514
-0.2077
-0.0362
13
0.1945
0.2876
-0.0555
-0.2373
14
0.1903
0.5257
0.3718
-0.1434
15
0.2669
0.3672
-0.0893
0.1091
16
0.3364
0.2682
-0.0411
0.0594
17
0.3138
0.4378
-0.1712
0.0345
18
0.1163
0.3188
0.2962
-0.3270
19
0.2545
0.4903
0.0789
-0.0535
20
0.6164
0.3108
-0.2102
0.0047
Correlations Between WBT Variables
and WBT Canonical Variables
Work Behavior
Type
1
2
3
4
Energizer
0.2251
-0.5441
-0.0306
0.8077
Inducer
0.7120
-0.3785
0.4921
-0.3282
Concentrator
0.1181
0.9467
-0.1796
-0.2400
Producer
-0.9296
0.2612
0.1547
-0.2090
92
Summary of Results and Analysis
The results and analysis of this study are presented in Chapter IV along
with answers to the research questions set forth in Chapter I. Following a
description of the sample population and the presentation of demographic
data for the 202 subjects, analysis, including frequency distribution, factor
analysis and canonical correlation is reported. Specifically, findings support
the theory that individuals with different work behavior types are attracted to
different professions. Work behavior type of academic librarians was also
related to specific areas of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. In addition,
factor analysis indicated consistency from this subject pool to Herzberg's two-
factor theory of motivators and hygienes. Work behavior type was
significantly related to Factor II, which was made up almost entirely of items
corresponding to Herzberg motivators, or job content items. It was found that
work behavior type is not significantly related to individual job satisfaction
items, although some differences among types were revealed. It was expected
that no particular work behavior type would rate all areas of a position as
satisfactory but, in general, that there would be differences among the four
types. The results support this and are consistent with findings reported in
the research literature.
Following this chapter, a summary of the study is presented. In
addition, implications of the study and recommendations for further research
are set forth.
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS
Perfect freedom is reserved for the man who lives by his own
work and in that work does what he wants to do.
(Collingwood, 1924)
Research Problem and Procedures
The problem of this study was to determine work behavior types, the
perceived motivators and hygienes related to work environment and the
relationship between these two constructs for academic librarians in Florida.
More specifically, answers were sought to the following questions:
1. What are the work behavior types of academic librarians in Florida
as measured by the Marcus Paul Placement Profile (MPPP)?
2. What are the motivators and hygienes perceived by academic
librarians in Florida as reported on the Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire (MSQ)?
3. Do factors derived from a factor analysis of the MSQ show
characteristics of motivators and hygienes?
4. Do the different work behavior type scores of academic librarians in
Florida, as measured by the MPPP, relate differently to the
motivators and hygienes score derived from the MSQ?
The literature provided much information and data on job satisfaction
in general with a substantial amount related to satisfaction studies of
librarians. Less information and data were available on work behavior types
although an extensive and somewhat contradictory literature related to
studies on the personality of librarians was reviewed. No information or data
93
94
were available which were specifically related to the relationship of work
behavior types and job satisfaction/dissatisfaction of academic librarians in
Florida.
The MSQ was used to measure job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction.
The MPPP was used to determine work behavior types.
To obtain answers to the research questions, the MSQ and MPPP
instruments were administered to 350 individuals identified as academic
librarians living in Florida. Of these, usable data were provided by 202 (57.7
percent) academic librarians currently employed in post-secondary
institutions in Florida. Demographic information indicated that the majority
of the participants, 145, were female (71.78 percent).
Data from the two instruments were analyzed using frequency
distributions, chi-square, factor analysis, and canonical correlations.
Frequency distributions were used to determine work behavior types of
academic librarians in Florida. The chi-square test was used to determine if
academic librarians' work behavior types are different from the normal
distribution.
The motivators and hygienes perceived by academic librarians in
Florida were determined through factor analysis of the MSQ. The
relationship of work behavior type to motivators and hygienes was analyzed
by canonical correlation. Two procedures, one related to the factors
determined by the factor analysis and one to individual items on the MSQ,
were performed.
The literature of academic librarianship frequently includes discussion
concerning the changing nature of the profession. Lauer (1989) stressed that
librarianship is a social, rather than solitary, profession. Those who do not
have the ability to communicate effectively, who have little interest in
management and planning, who avoid controversy to the extent that their
95
occupational creativity is stifled and who lack leadership qualities may find
that academic librarianship is an inappropriate career choice. Black (1989)
reported evidence of a frustration level for mid-career librarians which may
indicate disharmony between personality traits or work behavior and career
demands. According to Slater (1979), we should "screen and warn entrants to
the profession. Tell them what it is really all about. Encourage the painfully
shy and the anti-social to seek other occupations (in which they will be
happier)" (p. 18). Agada (1984) advocated a focus in studies on behavior
reactions of personality types in the context of specific job experiences.
Further, after discussing the self-effacing and non-assertive stereotype of
librarians, as reported in the studies he reviewed, Agada suggested that an
evaluation of library education and training programs along with revised
position design and adjustments in work environments could remedy the
presence of inappropriate traits and attitudes among library professionals.
Although individuals leave jobs for a variety of reasons, including
many positive ones, a certain number of positions are vacated because of a
mismatch between employee and job. Recruiting and training personnel are
expensive as is the loss of time and productivity when an employee leaves a
position. Remaining employees experience stress when established working
relationships are disrupted and they may experience an increased workload,
another factor in stress (Allison & Sartori, 1988). When a job-employee
mismatch occurs, both administrator and employee feel a loss as each has
experienced failure (Nickens, 1984).
A good match between organization and individual contributes to the
health of both and is mutually beneficial. Matching an individual's work
behavior type with characteristics of the work environment could promote
job satisfaction, increase productivity and lead to a dynamic symbiosis.
96
Research Questions
Research Question One: What are the work behavior types of academic
librarians in Florida?
In comparison to the general population which includes 60 percent
concentrators and producers with producers predominant, 20 percent
energizers and 20 percent inducers, this study showed academic librarians to
be almost 84 percent concentrators and producers with concentrators
predominant, about 7 percent energizers and about 9.5 percent inducers. Chi-
square analysis showed strong evidence that these results are significantly
different from those of the general population. This supports the theory that
different work behavior types are attracted to different professions.
When analyzed by gender, some differences in distribution were seen.
Females were more strongly concentrators and producers (86 percent) than
males (77 percent). Although concentrator still predominated for either sex,
only 6.2 percent of the females were energizers while 7.6 percent were
inducers. Male energizers constituted 8.8 percent and male inducers 14
percent of the male subjects. Compared with 20 percent energizers and 20
percent inducers in the general population, all these results, with the
exception of that for male inducers, are significantly lower than would be
expected.
When compared to other studies on work behavior type, the
distribution of academic librarians by type was closest to that reported by
Wellstood (1984/1985). Her study of medical technologists reported 52.3
percent producers, 33.3 percent concentrators, 7.2 percent inducers, and 7.2
percent energizers. The only significant difference concerned the distribution
of concentrators and producers; the totals were almost identical but the
individual numbers of the two types were reversed. This indicates some
97
similarity in the type of person attracted to these two different professions.
Concentrators and producers work to maintain their organization in its
present form. They follow rules and regulations, like to work alone or at least
at their own pace and may be resistant to change. Although this may be
appropriate for laboratory technicians, who must be precise and follow careful
procedures and who may need to work uninterrupted, it does not necessarily
fit the dynamic and rapidly changing environment of an academic library.
Energizers, who embrace challenges, welcome change and exhibit bold
behavior, along with the charming and convincing inducers, would appear to
be both sorely underrepresented among academic librarians and needed by
the profession.
The analysis of demographic data showed that 69 percent of the
respondents were 40 to 59 years old and that 64 percent had been in the
profession for 11 years or more. They fit into Black's (1981) group of mid¬
career librarians who showed evidence of job frustration and a fissure
between their work behaviors and position demands.
Research Question Two: What are the motivators and hygienes perceived by
academic librarians in Florida as reported on the Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire (MSQ)?
The MSQ measures Intrinsic, or job content, and Extrinsic, or job
context, items. These are analogous to Herzberg's motivators and hygienes.
The three scores provided by the MSQ include an Intrinsic score, and Extrinsic
score, and a General Satisfaction, or total score. Higher scores by area or a
higher total score imply a greater degree of job satisfaction with job content,
job context, or in general. Inducers and producers had the lowest mean scores
on 19 of the 20 items with producers mean scores below the total mean on all
20 items. Producers were lowest on the total, or General Satisfaction score,
98
with an Intrinsic (motivator), or job content, score lower than the three other
types. Inducers were lowest on the Extrinsic (hygiene) or job content score
and below the mean on the total, or General Satisfaction, score.
Producers are comfortable following procedures and guidelines. They
prefer clear directions, will follow orders, meet deadlines and produce precise,
thoroughly documented results. Given the changing dynamics in procedures
and activities associated with the current academic library environment, the
somewhat lower degree of satisfaction of producers with job content factors
could be anticipated. On the other hand, energizers, who are assertive,
creative, impatient with detail and direct in their approach to the pursuit of
goals, score highest of the four types on Intrinsic or job content items. The
dynamic and changing responsibilities associated with the modern academic
library would be challenging to these individuals and would allow them to
exercise their skill in planning and their interest in the improvement of work
processes.
Inducers like to use group processes to accomplish goals, place more
emphasis on people and interpersonal relations than on organizations and
are sensitive to the needs of associates. They had the lowest mean score on
Extrinsic (hygiene) or job context items such as the amount of praise given for
work well done, advancement opportunities, company policies, supervisor
abilities and administrative decisions. Concentrators, who are orderly and
steady in their approach to work, loyal to their organization and systematic in
productivity had the highest mean score on the Extrinsic, or job context,
items. These results may indicate that inducers find their work satisfying but
the way in which changes occur are less satisfying to them.
99
Research Question Three: Do factors derived from a factor analysis of the
MSQ show characteristics of motivators and hygienes?
Factor analysis of responses to the MSQ do show characteristics of
motivators and hygienes. With the exception of "freedom to work alone"
and "opportunity for steady employment" the 12 items on the Intrinsic (job
content) scale of the MSQ all correspond to a Herzberg motivator. Five of the
six items on the Extrinsic (job context) scale of the MSQ correspond to
Herzberg hygienes along with two items the MSQ uses to determine the
General Satisfaction score ("working conditions" and "relationship with co¬
workers"). The exception is "advancement on current job," a Herzberg
motivator.
The factor loadings on the MSQ show that Factor I includes eight items.
These all correspond to Herzberg hygienes with the exception of the last item
in the sequence, "steady employment." In MSQ scoring, seven of these eight
items, again with the exception of the last item, are part of the Extrinsic score.
Factor II includes seven items which all correspond to Herzberg
motivators. Six of the seven are part of the MSQ Intrinsic score. The final
five MSQ items loaded on Factor III. These all form part of the MSQ Intrinsic
score and, with the exception of "opportunity to work alone," are Herzberg
motivators.
Research Question Four: Do the different work behavior type scores of
academic librarians in Florida, as measured by the MPPP, relate differently to
the motivator and hygiene scores derived from the MSQ?
In order to analyze the relationship between MSQ scores and work
behavior types, data were analyzed by canonical correlation. Given two or
more sets of variables, this analysis leads to the canonical variable of each set
and maximizes the correlation between the variables. The simple
100
correlations between the four work behavior types and individual MSQ items
were weak. In addition, correlations between work behavior type and the
three factors derived from the factor analysis of the MSQ were also weak.
However, the largest correlations in absolute value were 0.1952 for
concentrator to Factor I (MSQ extrinsic items; Herzberg hygienes or job
context items) and a negative correlation of -0.1944 for producer to Factor II
(MSQ Intrinsic items; Herzberg motivators; job content items). Factor III is
also made up of MSQ Intrinsic items (Herzberg motivators or job content
items) and producers had both the strongest correlation, in absolute value,
and the only negative correlation (-0.1167).
The general interpretation of the first canonical correlation is that the
strongest relationship is between Factor II (Herzberg motivators or job content
items) and concentrators. The first canonical correlation is significantly
different from zero at the .05 level and is even significant at the .01 level.
A second set of canonical correlations was established between the 4
work behavior types and the 20 individual MSQ items. As with the canonical
correlations for work behavior type to the three factors, the correlations are
weak. Eight of the 12 items whose weighted differences make up the first
canonical variable for the MSQ item variables are motivator, or intrinsic,
items. The canonical variables for work behavior type indicate greater
emphasis on producer (-0.7171). There is some evidence that the correlation
is different from zero at the .05 level. There is a weak to moderate
relationship between work behavior type and "social status,†"social service"
and "achievement." Finally, there is a weak to moderate relationship
between producer and intrinsic, or job content, items on the MSQ.
101
Implications
Work Behavior Type
Job dissatisfaction is costly to individuals and organizations. High
turnover rates, low employee morale and a feeling of failure on the part of
both administrator and worker can be the result of a mismatch between a job
and an employee. The work behavior type of an individual may be a factor in
his or her adaptation to a particular work environment or specific job. If an
employee were placed in a work situation consistent with his need for
structure, supervision, autonomy, recognition and contact with other people,
satisfaction might increase and attrition be reduced.
There are several implications of the findings of this study for
personnel management in academic librarianship. Specific areas to which
these findings could make a contribution include recruitment and education
for the profession, job placement, professional development and training,
administrator management style and team building.
Determining the work behavior type of students enrolled in graduate
library science programs could be useful in allowing inappropriate traits or
outmoded behaviors to be recognized and curriculum to be developed to help
students strengthen those qualities identified as important to employment as
academic librarians. The method of instruction should differ for the various
work behavior types. For example, producers prefer structure, step-by-step
instructions and organization, while inducers prefer group interaction as part
of an instruction method. Although quotas by type are not advocated, the
predominance of concentrators and producers in the sample studies would
indicate some recruitment of inducers and energizers could be useful to the
profession as a whole. According to Woodsworth and Lester (1991), the
profession needs to both recruit and nurture self-confident change agents and
102
potential leaders. "There must be recognition among current research
librarians and library educators of the need for more staff who are both
entrepreneurial and intrapreneurial, and fewer who just do as they are told"
(p. 208).
In the area of job matching, the component of work behavior type,
when added to the professional qualifications of the prospective employee
and the technical requirements of the job, could be a useful factor in
placement decisions. If employees are placed in positions which meet their
needs for degree of structure or autonomy, individual or group work and
supervision or recognition, worker effectiveness and satisfaction could be
maximized.
Professional development and training could be more effective if work
behavior type was considered. This is an area which can lead to increased
employee satisfaction and, from management's point of view, is an
investment made to increase employee skills, effectiveness and productivity.
Knowledge of work behavior type could be used to select specific participants
for particular training programs and in designing programs that use varied
learning and training methods. Based on research into work behavior type, it
can be assumed that different work behavior types would respond to different
training methods. For example, producers might prefer training that is
organized, with clearly defined course objectives, precise and pre-determined
methods of evaluation, written materials and logical step-by-step instruction.
A self-paced learning method would be a possible choice for this group, in
contrast to inducers, who would react favorably to a less-structured format
with opportunities for involvement with other people. They would react
well to an innovative training approach. Energizers could thrive in a
competitive atmosphere, responding well to role-playing, "games" and other
methods that would allow them to take charge and make use of their
103
forcefulness and independence. Concentrators would probably prefer an
orderly and comfortable training approach but their easy-going, accepting and
reasonable nature would make them willing to try a variety of methods
suggested by administrators. As they are generally attentive, disciplined and
exacting, they could benefit from a variety of instructional methods.
If administrators understand that the needs of individuals within a job
environment differ, both initial hiring decisions and future task assignment
will be more effective. Some individuals are process oriented and are
predisposed to active, external orientations (energizers and inducers) while
others are product oriented, are more passive and internal (producers and
concentrators). The different needs of individuals are not related to skill,
intelligence or competence but are simply modes in which they feel
comfortable. Thus, different management styles will be more effective with
different work behavior types. For example, energizers and inducers would
react favorably to participatory management while producers, who want
everything spelled out clearly, might find it frustrating.
Some of the work in academic libraries is done by teams or task forces.
Selecting team members with different work behavior types could allow
members to focus on those areas of the assignment which they find most
satisfying thus maximizing the productivity of the entire team. However, it
is not clear what particular mix of types would be most effective or whether
some tasks would be better performed by more homogeneous groups.
Consistent with a review of the literature on work behavior type, the
theory was supported by this study. Almost 84 percent of academic librarians
had two work behavior types as their primary orientation. These two types
were consistent in description with personality traits reported in earlier
research studies of librarians. In addition, possible relationships between
MPPP scores and Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) scores of librarians
104
(Webb, 1990) appear to be consistent with relationships reported by Glenn
(1982/1983), in particular the significant relationship between MPPP energizer
scores and MBTI intuitive and perceptive scores, and MPPP producer scores
and MBTI introvert, sensing and judging scores. According to the Center for
the Application of Psychological Type (CAPT), the 267 people in CAPT's
250,000-person database who listed their occupation as "librarian" showed the
following preferences: Introverted (61 percent); Sensing (54 percent); Feeling
(67 percent) and Judging (64 percent). The ISFJ type accounts for
approximately six percent of the population of the United States. It should be
noted that the sample group's ISFJ preference is not particularly strong
(Webb, 1990). However, the characteristics associated with the ISFJ type (quiet,
friendly, responsible, conscientious, thorough, painstaking, accurate, loyal,
considerate and willing to work devotedly to meet their obligations) (ibid) are
consistent with Marcus Paul Placement Profile trait lists for concentrators (for
example, committed, considerate, disciplined, loyal, orderly, patient,
respectful, steady and trusting) and producers (for example, accurate, careful,
cautious, compliant, conforming, devoted, exacting, follows orders, follows
procedures, precise, respectful, responsible and systematic) (Nickens, 1984).
It is important to remember that human beings are complex and multi¬
faceted entities. The tendency toward one of four work behavior types is just
one aspect of an individual.
Tob Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction
Factor loadings from MSQ scores showed strong evidence of Herzberg
motivators and hygienes and were almost perfectly divided between intrinsic
and extrinsic items. Taken in conjunction with the mean score by type for
Extrinsic, Intrinsic, and total, or General Satisfaction, MSQ scores, some
implications can be seen.
105
Concentrators were most satisfied with both dimensions of their jobs.
Given the loyalty and adaptability of individuals with a preference for this
work behavior type, the changing dynamics of the academic library at the end
of the 20th century would be accepted and although they might not produce
the ideas and new practices needed to cope with change, they appear to be well
satisfied with their jobs and quite able to continue to contribute to the
profession.
Energizers were particularly satisfied with the intrinsic (motivator or
job content) aspects of their positions, a finding consistent with their
willingness to try new things, generate solutions and act decisively.
The implication for academic libraries is to meld the strengths of these
two types, while continuing to provide an environment conducive to their
job satisfaction. The lowest score on the MSQ was "my pay and the amount
of work I do" for concentrators and "chances for advancement" for energizers.
Pay is a constant area of concern in libraries in general. The results of this
study show that all subjects were concerned with low salaries. However, only
concentrators showed this as their least satisfied work item. Advancement
opportunities were also sources of dissatisfaction for all types, but particularly
for energizers who show leadership characteristics but may find few
opportunities to use them. Dissatisfaction with pay and advancement
opportunities has long been reported in the literature. This is the first study
to tie these items to work behavior type.
Producers and inducers were less satisfied on both Intrinsic and
Extrinsic MSQ scores as well as on the General Satisfaction or total score.
Inducers were reasonably satisfied with job content items. This is consistent
with their work behavior traits and the changing role of the academic library.
However, they had the lowest mean score of all types on five of six extrinsic
(job context or hygiene) items. Their lowest individual score related to
106
"company policies," the lowest score for any type on any item. Producers had
the lowest total score of all types and the lowest intrinsic, or job content, score.
Along with the inducers, "company policies" drew producer's lowest score.
However, they also showed the least satisfaction of any type on 8 of 12 job
content items. As producers are a significant group in academic libraries
(38.12 percent of the sample), the effect of institutional change and position
alteration on this type should be carefully assessed.
Recommendations for Further Research
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations for
additional research were offered.
1. The study was limited by geography and included only academic
librarians in Florida. Although Florida is a large state with a
diverse population mix, the librarians sampled may not be
representative of academic librarians in other areas of the country.
Replication with academic librarians in another large, diverse state
could be useful in confirming or questioning these results.
2. A replication of the study using a large national sample could be
very useful. Sufficient subjects would allow work behavior type
and job satisfaction to be broken out by position in an academic
library (technical services, public services, systems, collection
management, or subject specialization) as well as by
administrator/non-administrator designation. Further,
administrators could be divided into middle managers, such as
department chairpersons, and system-wide managers, such as deans
or directors.
3. The study examined work behavior type and job satisfaction for
academic librarians in a cross-section of post-secondary institutions,
107
including college, community college, university and special
libraries with an additional mix of public and private institutions
both large and small. This was a deliberate decision for this study.
However, studies focusing on a particular type of post-secondary
institution, such as community colleges or research universities,
could provide interesting and useful comparative data.
4. As stated earlier, the largest group of subjects was between 40 and 59
years of age and had been members of the profession for 11-20 years.
It is recommended that the work behavior types of students
enrolled in graduate library science programs and academic
librarians with less than 10 years in the profession be sampled to
determine their work behavior type. This would show whether any
change has or is occurring in the type mix of prospective or newer
members of the profession and would allow comparison with the
mature and experienced group represented in this study.
5. Finally, other professional populations, such as college or
university faculty, managers in business or industry, teachers,
persons associated with the legal system, engineers and others with
technical positions and health care professionals could be
appropriate for a study of work behavior type and job satisfaction.
Additional data related to job matching and productivity could
result from such studies.
APPENDIX A
LETTER TO SUBJECTS
March 1,1993
Dear Colleague:
I am writing to request your assistance in a research study designed to
explore the areas of work-behavior theory and job satisfaction among
academic librarians in Florida. As a library faculty member at the University
of Florida, I designed the study and I believe it has the potential to provide
useful information about the work environment of academic librarians.
Please complete the enclosed forms and return them to me in the
envelope provided. The forms have been pre-tested and should take
approximately 15 minutes of your time to complete. Instructions for the
Marcus Paul Placement Profile (MPPP) and the Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire (MSQ) are printed on the respective forms. Please complete
both the MPPP form and the MSQ form.
Please return all forms to me in the enclosed, stamped envelope by
March 10, 1993. Even if you do not wish to participate, please return the blank
forms to me in the envelope provided.
Vocational Psychology Research at the University of Minnesota is
currently revising the MSQ manual and constructing new norm tables.
Response statistics from this study will be included in the revision.
Your participation in this study is very important. It represents a first
attempt to identify the work behavior types of academic librarians, through
the MPPP, and to relate these types to job satisfaction.
108
109
Please answer all questions as honestly as you can. Your responses will
be treated confidentially. All forms will be coded and the results of the study
will be reported statistically to avoid any identification with individuals or
institutions. Your name on the MPPP form will be used only to allow me to
provide you with a copy of the MPPP report. If you do not wish to receive the
MPPP report, it is not necessary to put your name on the MPPP form.
If you wish additional information about the completed study, please
contact me separately at the address listed below.
Thank you for your assistance with this project.
Sincerely yours,
APPENDIX B
FOLLOW-UP LETTER
March 18,1993
Dear Colleague:
I recently distributed packets containing two instruments and a
supplementary data sheet related to a study of the work behavior type and
overall job satisfaction level of academic librarians in Florida. Individual
subjects were selected based on their membership in ACRL, the academic
caucus of FLA, or their active participation in other professional
organizations. You were identified as a potential subject based on this criteria.
Since I have not yet received your response, I am asking you again to
assist me in this project by completing the Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire (MSQ), the Marcus Paul Placement Profile (MPPP) and the
supplementary data sheet previously sent to you and returning them to me
by Wednesday, March 31. Completion of the instruments will take about 15
minutes. If you do not wish to participate in the study, please return the
blank forms to me by March 31. If you need another set of forms, please
contact me by mail or e-mail.
This study is the final section of my doctoral dissertation work and
your participation is important to me. In addition, the study has the potential
to provide information relevant to recruitment for academic librarianship
and to career development. Your participation will strengthen the study and
add to the body of knowledge concerning the profession.
110
Ill
After an initial review to determine that all three forms have been
returned and to identify those individuals who wish to receive the MPPP
report, all names and identifying numbers will be removed prior to statistical
analysis. Your responses will be treated confidentially at all stages of the
project. No individual subject or single institution will be identified in any
way.
If you have any questions concerning the study, please contact me by
telephone after April 1, 1993 or by e-mail. Thank you for your assistance in
this project.
Sincerely yours,
APPENDIX C
LETTER ACCOMPANYING PROFILES
July 19,1993
Dear Colleague:
Thank you for your participation in the research study I am conducting
on job satisfaction and work behavior type of academic librarians in Florida.
The raw response was over 70 percent of those contacted.
By signing the Marcus Paul Placement Profile (MPPP) form you
indicated an interest in receiving a copy of your profile results. It is included
for you. In order to increase your understanding of the MPPP, a brief general
summary follows.
The MPPP was developed using W. M. Marston's behavioral model
and the research of J. Nickens and J. P. Bauch. The instrument was developed
to discern work behavior type for the purpose of matching individuals and
jobs. MPPP scores are scaled, plotted on a graph and an interpretation is
printed. The subject's highest score of the four MPPP scores represents the
primary type of best fit. The four possible types are:
Energizer (E): These individuals are actively engaged in getting
results. They are assertive and use a direct approach as they
pursue goals. High "E" type workers may be impatient with
detail and they desire direct answers and action from associates.
They are creative and have many ideas for improving work
processes.
112
113
Inducer (I): Inducers involve others as they pursue their objec¬
tives. They are sensitive to needs of their associates, and share
optimistic outlooks as they influence others. They are good at
using group processes to accomplish goals, being able to clarify
ideas for themselves and others. They place more emphasis on
people and interpersonal relations than on their organization.
Concentrator (C): Normally, the "C" types apply their skills in
orderly ways resisting distractions. They are steady workers, and
are loyal to the organization, showing great patience. They are
systematic, effective, and help maintain moderation in tense
situations.
Producer (P): Producers strive for quality as they carefully follow
procedures, guidelines, or standards. They can support their
decisions and actions with irrefutable documentation. Producers
expect clear directions but they can be relied on to meet their
deadlines, follow orders, and carry out their assignments with
precision.
Again, thank you for your participation in this study. I am completing
the statistical analysis of the data this fall and expect the entire study to be in
final form sometime during 1994.
Sincerely,
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Carol Ritzen Kem was born and grew up in Springfield, Missouri. She
attended public schools and college in Springfield and graduated from Drury
College with a Bachelor of Arts degree in history, magna cum laude
(Departmental Distinction in History and Education). She continued her
education at the University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana, and earned a
Master of Arts degree in history, followed by a Master of Science in Library
Science degree from the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
She taught history for one year at Urbana High School, Urbana, Illinois,
was a graduate teaching assistant in the Department of History at the
University of Illinois, and worked at the Perkins Library of Duke University
before beginning graduate work in library science.
Since 1972 she has been a member of the faculty in the University of
Florida Libraries at the University of Florida. Currently, she is Sociology
Collection Bibliographer in the Department of Collection Management with
the rank of Associate University Librarian. Her responsibilities include
management of the collections in Afro-American Studies, Criminology,
Sociology, and Women's Studies.
She is a member of the American Library Association, the
Southeastern Library Association, and the Florida Library Association. She
was selected for membership in Phi Alpha Theta (history honorary society), Pi
Gamma Mu (social science honor society), Beta Phi Mu (library science honor
society), and Mortar Board (scholarship and leadership honor society). An
126
127
active volunteer, she has served as an officer or board member for a variety of
professional, community and charitable organizations.
She married William Reade Kem in 1968. He is Professor of
Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine, University of Florida.
They have two sons, Reade, a 1993 graduate of Swarthmore College, and Eric,
a member of the Swarthmore College Class of 1998.
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms
to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in
scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
in M. Nickens, Chairman
ohn
Professor of Educational Leadership
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms
to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in
scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
James W. Hensel
Professor of Educational Leadership
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms
to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in
scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
Associate Professor of Educational
Leadership
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms
to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in
scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
biompson Fillmer
Professor of Instruction and Curriculum
This dissertation was submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the College
of Education and to the Graduate School and was accepted as partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
December, 1994
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