COMPARISON OF TWO METHODS UTILIZED TO TEACH SIXTH GRADE STUDENTS
RECOGNITION OF STRUCTURAL DEFECTS IN TREES

By

LAURA ANNE SANAGORSKI

A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

2006

Copyright 2006

by

Laura A. Sanagorski

I dedicate this work to my mother, Linda Sanagorski, (1947- 2006).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank the members of my committee for their boundless support and

suggestions. First and foremost, a special thank you should be extended to George Fitzpatrick.

This work would not be possible without his unlimited support and guidance. I would like to

thank him for keeping me on track and for reviewing all steps of my work with his skilled

proficiency. I also thank Kimberly Moore, William H. Kern, and Eva Worden, for giving me

the opportunity to carry out this study, and for their commitment and support as members of my

graduate committee.

George Fitzpatrick, Kimberly Moore, and Eva Worden should also be recognized as

previous professors who have contributed to cultivating my passion for arboriculture,

horticulture, and education.

I would like to thank Wendy Meyer, for her guidance and support through both the

undergraduate and graduate stages of my academic career.

I would like to thank the principals and teachers who allowed me to conduct my research

in their schools. This work would not have been possible without their cooperation. Thank you

to Nikki Simaglou, Thomas Zielinski, Dr. Kris J. Black, David Olafson, Elsa Labonski,

Aaronette Gresham.

I would like to thank the University of Florida Institutional Review Board for reviewing

and approving my research protocol.

I would like to thank Tim Womack for his inspiration and dedication to educating today's

children about trees, while our paths crossed briefly, as we sought similar goals.

Finally, I would like to thank those who have supported and believed in me through my

non-traditional educational experience. Thanks to Becky, Emily, and Dad for their love and

support across many miles. Thank you to Lisa, and Jimbo for their encouragement from afar.

Thank you to Keith and Diana for sharing experience and knowledge with me, and for their

encouragement through this process.

I would like to extend special gratitude to Scott, for being my best friend, for the constant

support through this whole experience, and for believing in me. I cannot imagine this past year

without you. Thank you for all of the ways you make things possible. I love you very much!

TABLE OF CONTENTS

A C K N O W L ED G M EN T S ................................................ .................................................4........

T A B L E O F F IG U R E S ..................................................................................................................... 8

L IST O F T A B L E S ......................................................................................................... ........ .. 9

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION .................................... .. ........... ..................................... 12

Trees, C children, and E education .. .................................................................... ............... 12
T rees in an U rban F forest .................... ... .................. ............ ................. ..... .... .... ........... 12
Structural D effects in Trees ........ .. ........................................... .. ............... 13
Im portance of Structural D effect Recognition.................................................... ............... 13
Incorporation In To E education ...................................................................... ............... 14

2 L ITE R A TU R E R E V IE W .............. ..................................................................... 15

B benefits of T rees for C children .. ...................................................................... ............... 15
Youth Arboricultural Education ................ .......... ............... 15
Importance of Incorporating Arboricultural Subjects....................................................... 16
State of C current C urriculum ................................................. ............................................ 16
T rees in the L landscape .............. .............................................................................. 16
B benefits of Trees for C children ............................................ ...... ............... 17
Importance of Comparing Methods of Instruction........................................................... 17
Factors for Success in Incorporating New Subjects into Curriculum............................... 18
Historically, Active Learning Outperforms Lecture and Passive Learning ........................ 18
Students' Learning Styles M ay be Changing .................................................... ................ 18
C concerns over Standardized Testing ....................................... ....................... ................ 19

3 M A TERIAL S AN D M ETH OD S .......................................... ......................... ................ 20

4 R E SU L T S ............................................................................................................. ........ .. 3 6

Recognition of Structural Defects Pre-Test and Post-Test................................................36
Recognition of Structural Defects Pre-Test and Post-Test as a Function of School .............36
Recognition of Structural Defects Pre-Test and Post-Test as a Function of Gender ........... 36
Recognition of Structural Defects in Trees as a Function of Method of Instruction ...........36
Performance in General Arboricultural Knowledge Questions.........................................37
Performance in General Arboricultural Knowledge Questions as a Function of Gender ......37
Performance in General Arboricultural Knowledge Questions as a Function School ...........37

5 D ISC U S SIO N ........................................................................................................ ....... .. 49

G general Observations.......................................................... .... .................... 49
Recognition of Structural Defects Pre-Test and Post-Test as a Function of FCAT Grade ....50

Recognition of Structural Defects Pre-Test and Post-Test as a Function of Gender ........... 51
Recognition of Structural Defects in Trees as a Function of Method of Instruction ........... 51
Performance in General Arboricultural Knowledge Questions.........................................52
Performance in General Arboricultural Knowledge Questions as a Function of Gender ......52
Performance in General Arboricultural Knowledge Questions as a Function of School .......53
R ecom m endations .......... .............. ...................................... ...... ............... 53
Incorporating Arboriculture and Horticulture Into the Curriculum...................................55
Effectiveness of Measuring Knowledge through FCAT Exams ......................................55
Effective M ethods of Instructing Y outh............................................................ ................ 55

P R E -T E S T ............................................................................................................ .................... 5 7

P O S T -T E S T .......................................................................................................... .................... 6 0

EXAM PLE CON TIN GEN CY TABLE ......................................... ........................ ................ 63

L IST O F R EFE R E N C E S ............................................................................................. 65

BIO GRAPH ICAL SK ETCH ........................................................... 69

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure page

3-1. Five mahogany trees (Swietenia mahagoni) used in this study.. Photograph taken
A p ril, 2 0 0 6 ..................................................................................................... ....... .. 2 5

3-2. Mahogany tree (Swietenia mahagoni) used in this study to demonstrate
circling/girdling roots. Photograph taken April, 2006 ................................. ................ 26

3-3 Mahogany tree (Swietenia mahagoni) used in this study to demonstrate
leaning/bent/broken/damaged trunk. Photograph taken April, 2006..............................27

3-4. Mahogany tree (Swietenia mahagoni) used in this study to demonstrate attachments of
equal sizes, codominant trunks and included bark. Photograph taken April, 2006 .........28

3-5. Mahogany tree (Swietenia mahagoni) used in this study to demonstrate a tree with no
apparent defects. Photograph taken April, 2006.......................................... ................ 29

3-6. Photographs of circling roots used in the traditional lecture portion of this study.
Photograph taken February, 2006 ...................................... ....................... ................ 30

3-7. Photos of circling roots on school grounds used in the experiential-style instruction
portion of this study. Photograph taken in M ay, 2006................................. ................ 31

3-8. Photos of codominant trunk used in the traditional lecture portion of this study.
Photograph taken February, 2006 ...................................... ....................... ................ 32

3-9. Photos of codominant trunk on school grounds used in the experiential-style instruction
portion of this study. Photograph taken M ay, 2006..................................... ................ 33

3-10. Photographs of desirable root system used in the traditional lecture portion of this
study. Photographs taken February, 2006 ................................................... ................ 34

3-11. Photographs of broken, leaning, damaged trunks used in the traditional lecture portion
of this study. Photographs taken February, 2006......................................... ................ 35

LIST OF TABLES

Table page

4-1. Summary scores of all sixth grade students (n= 180), for pre-test and post-test on
recognition of observable defects in mahogany trees (Swietenia mahagoni). Chi-
square critical value at the P= 0.05 level is 11.07; significant differences at the P=
0.05 level are indicated by ..................... ...... ............................ .................38

4-2. Summary scores of all sixth grade students (n= 180), by school A vs. B vs. C, for post-
test recognition of observable defects in mahogany trees (Swietenia mahagoni). Chi-
square critical value at the P= 0.05 is 18.31; significant differences at the P= 0.05
level is indicated by *. ............................................................. 39

4-3. Summary scores of all sixth grade students (n= 180), by gender, for pre-test recognition
of observable defects in mahogany trees (Swietenia mahagoni). Chi-square critical
value at the P= 0.05 level is 11.07; significant differences at the P= 0.05 level are
in d ic a te d b y ..................................................................................................................... 4 0

4-4. Summary scores of all sixth grade students (n= 180), by gender, for post-test
recognition of observable defects in mahogany trees (Swietenia mahagoni). Chi-
square critical value at the P= 0.05 level is 11.07; significant differences at the P=
0.05 level are indicated by *. ...................................................... ..................... 40

4-5. Summary scores of all sixth grade students (n= 180), by instructional method,
traditional, photographic vs. experiential, hands-on, for pre-test and post-test
recognition of observable defects in mahogany trees (Swietenia mahagoni). Chi-
square critical value at the P= 0.05 level is 18.31; significant differences at the P=
0.05 level are indicated by *. .............. .............................. ...............41

4-6. Summary scores of all sixth grade students (n= 180), by school A vs. B vs. C, for pre-
test recognition of observable defects in mahogany trees (Swietenia mahagoni). Chi-
square critical value at the P= 0.05 level is 18.31; significant differences at the P=
0.05 level are indicated by *. ...................................................... ..................... 42

4-7. Summary of all sixth grade students' (n= 180) performance on general arboricultural
know ledge questions ............ .. .................... .................. ......................... .. ............... 43

4-8. Summary all sixth grade students' (n= 180) performance on general arboricultural
knowledge questions, males vs. females vs. all students.............................. ................ 45

4-9. Summary all sixth grade students' (n= 180) performance on general arboricultural
knowledge questions, school A vs. B vs. C vs. all students ......................... ................ 47

Abstract of Thesis Presented to the Graduate School
of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science

COMPARISON OF TWO METHODS UTILIZED TO TEACH SIXTH GRADE CHILDREN
RECOGNITION OF STRUCTURAL DEFECTS IN TREES

By

Laura Sanagorski

December 2006

Chair: George E. Fitzpatrick
Committee Members: Kimberly Moore, Eva Worden, William H. Kern, Jr.
Major Department: Environmental Horticulture

Sixth grade students are capable of recognizing and comprehending the implications of

structural defects in trees. Structural defects in trees were introduced to sixth grade students at

three schools: Seminole Middle School in Plantation, Nova Middle School in Davie, Plantation

Middle School in Plantation, all located in the Broward County, Florida school district. The

schools represented Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT) school grades of A, B, and

C, respectively. These grades are assigned based on students' collective test scores at each

school, and are used as a measure of how successful the school is at teaching statewide academic

standards.

Two methods of instruction: hands-on, experiential instruction versus a passive, lecture-

style instruction, were compared in teaching recognition of structural defects in trees. Through

the use of a pre-test and a post-test, it was determined that students exposed to both methods of

instruction were more successful in recognizing defects after instruction than they were before

instruction. Moreover, it was determined that students exposed to defects in trees via lecture-

style classroom instruction performed better in the post test than students exposed to the same

material via a more hands-on approach. On both tests, students were asked to complete several

arboricultural general knowledge questions. The arboricultural general knowledge questions

demonstrated that a significant arboricultural knowledge base exists within the sixth grade

classes who participated in this study.

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Trees, Children, and Education

Trees have been proven to be beneficial for children socially, physically, and emotionally.

Learning about plants and trees is beneficial as well. With limited curriculum currently available

on arboriculture and horticulture, education about plants and trees is extremely important, with

tree structure being an item of particular significance.

Today's adults were exposed to the outdoors much more than today's children are. There

is an unprecedented level of electronic media exposure today, of which the results are not yet

known.

Trees in an Urban Forest

The urban forest encompasses the trees and plants within a city environment. An urban

forest can be seen as an ecosystem with the rather unusual components such as pavement,

homes, vehicles, commercial properties, and airports (Treepeople and Lipkis 1990). Care of

urban trees is extremely different from the care of trees in a forest. Trees in an urban setting are

confined to an "artificial habitat" that fails to provide an adequate amount of the light, clean

water, unlimited healthy soil, and clean air that a tree requires (Treepeople and Lipkis 1990).

For this reason, urban trees require special care, both for their well-being and for the protection

of the property and individuals that share their environment. Principles of managing the urban

forest must include the social aspect of spaces shared by both people and trees. The management

of such trees is much more intensive than the management of trees in a typical, natural forest.

Trees are dynamic, living systems. They do not heal, regenerate, or restore injured parts. They

compartmentalize, or grow special wound-wood to stop the spread of decay (Shigo, 1989). This

is one of their survival mechanisms, because trees are unable to move from detrimental forces.

One specific example of the intensive management required in an urban setting is the

recognition and analysis of hazard trees. There are specific requirements for a tree to be deemed

as a hazard tree. A hazard tree must have structural defects which create the potential to fail, be

located in an environment favorable to failure, and be located in close proximity to a target that

would be subjected to the impacts of a failure. The parts of the tree likely to fail must also be of

a substantial size. For example, a tree with extremely large, codominant leaders and included

bark located in the woods is not a hazard tree, even if it is likely to fail. This same tree located

on a busy street over a park bench during hurricane season would be a hazard tree.

Structural Defects in Trees

Common structural defects of landscape trees include circling/girdling roots, a

leaning/bent/broken/damaged trunk, included bark, codominant trunks, and attachments of equal

sizes. Trees without structural defects are highly desirable in an urban landscape, because they

have reduced risks of failure.

Hazard trees, as previously mentioned, have one or more of these structural defects.

Hazard trees can cause injury to persons and damage to property. Hazard trees have shorter

lifespans than trees with good structure, and are more costly to maintain.

Importance of Structural Defect Recognition

Hazard trees can be recognized when they are at a young age so that planting them can

be avoided or proactive measures to correct the defects can be taken. People who handle trees,

such as growers, landscapers, landscape maintenance crews, property management, and

homeowners, should be able to recognize significant defects at each stage of trees' lives.

Recognition of defects in trees relies on the education of those who handle them (Shigo, 2000).

Often, property owners may pay the price for the lack of knowledge regarding the presence of

structural defects in trees.

Trees without structural defects are considered higher quality and may demand a higher

price in the market. However, many buyers and sellers are unable to recognize the difference in

tree quality due to lack of education, a real disadvantage. People need to be able to recognize

structural defects in trees so that better quality trees can be planted in our landscapes and better

quality urban forests produced.

Incorporation In To Education

There is a deficiency of horticultural and arboricultural subjects for students. However,

recent additions to curriculum have been well-received by both instructors and students (Meyer

et al., 2001). Professionals are encouraging research into what and how arboricultural and

horticultural topics can be incorporated (Smith and Motsenbocker 2005). As an added benefits,

it is known that these topics can facilitate the instruction of other subjects (Nyenhuis, 1994, and

Dirks and Orvis, 2005).

While typical middle school instruction in Florida Public Schools is conducted toward

preparation for the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test teachers are free to teach as they

please (Anon., 2005). Structural defect recognition is one subject that can be incorporated into

the schools. This study was conducted to find out if 6th grade is an appropriate time to present

structural defects in trees as part of the curriculum. Two teaching methods were compared to

find out whether traditional lecture-style classroom instruction or a more hands-on, experiential

approach would be more effective.

Previous studies have shown that active, hands-on learning may be the most effective

method of teaching students (Hancox, 2005, and Morgan, 1993).

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

Benefits of Trees for Children

Trees provide aesthetic and environmental benefits, and also provide numerous societal

ones. Arboriculture and horticulture have been stated as a foundation for healthy social ecology

(Kuo, 2003) and cause improved life skills in children (Robinson and Zajicek, 2005). Children

also really like to be around trees. They are more likely to congregate in heavily-canopied areas

as opposed to less green spaces (Coley et al., 1997). Activities, such as creative play, tend to

occur in green spaces (Faber Taylor et al., 1998). Children who have horticultural topics

incorporated into their education perform better in their science classes than those that do not

(Smith and Motsenbocker, 2005; Klemmer et al., 2005; Poston et al., 2005).

According to Louv, children absolutely need nature for development and learning. He

states that this is apparent by the [negative] result of a lack in exposure and by the "magic" that

occurs when children experience the outdoors (Louv, 2005).

Youth Arboricultural Education

Youth horticultural education is important and beneficial (Phibbs and Relf, 2005;

DeMarco et. al., 1999) Nature-related subjects incorporated into current subject topics increase

children' sense of place, teach them about their local trees and plants, and increase knowledge

about local ecology (Spitz, 2002). Even young students can learn about trees. Second graders in

New Hampshire collect data about tree diameter both at home and in forests surrounding their

schools. This data has been used to help determine the age of New Hampshire's forests

(Lonergan, 1997).

Importance of Incorporating Arboricultural Subjects

There is a general need for improved arboricultural and horticultural education for

children and adults. Education in urban forestry and arboriculture is extremely important

(Elmendorf, 2005). Within this broad subject area, tree structure has been stated as one of the

top five most important educational topics in urban forestry and arboricultural education

(Elmendorf, 2005). If the general public were more knowledgeable about these and other

arboricultural issues, urban forests would be more healthy, more structurally sound, and safer

overall. Defects in tree structure could be introduced to elementary students to give them a

general understanding of these concepts. It is highly important to introduce children to these

topics when they are young in order to produce educated adults (Loucks-Horsely et al., 1990;

Lohr and Mims, 2005).

State of Current Curriculum

There has been limited curriculum development for the purpose of teaching horticulture

to elementary students. However, some recent programs and curriculum have been developed

and have been well-received by students and teachers (Meyer et al., 2001). Youth horticultural

education needs to be improved and new topics introduced. More research about incorporating

arboriculture and horticulture into classrooms should be conducted (Smith and Motsenbocker,

2005). As an added benefit, the introduction of arboriculture into elementary curriculum can

facilitate the instruction of math and history, as well as many other subjects in the classroom

(Nyenhuis, 1994, Dirks and Orvis, 2005).

Trees in the Landscape

Trees may have life expectancies of many years, and their quality will greatly affect their

life in the landscape. In addition, higher quality trees establish more quickly and require less

maintenance after planting (Anon., 1998). Trees planted with structural defects can become

increasingly hazardous as they mature (Anon., 1998). Tree failures are a safety issue in the

landscape, but are predictable to the trained eye (Hayes, 2002). Trees in Florida are often graded

for quality using the Florida Grades and Standards. Grades are assigned based on the

characteristics of a tree's crown, trunk, branches, root system, and leaves. The presence of

structural defects reduce a tree's grade (Anon., 1998).

Benefits of Trees for Children

Structural defects in canopy trees include absence of a straight single leader, co-dominant

trunks, circling/girdling roots, narrow angles of attachment, and included bark (Hayes, 2002;

Anon., 1998, Edberg and Berry, 1999; Kane et al., 2005; Anon. 1998 (b); Anon. 1993; Smith and

Shortle, 2005). The absence or presence of structural defects in trees is the basis of the Florida

Grades and Standards. These standards are frequently referred to in urban forestry applications,

but are rarely explained to the layperson. Unless entering a related line of work, many people

are never exposed to these concepts until either faced with code violations or minimum

landscaping standards required by their municipality. This topic could be introduced to the

standard elementary curriculum.

Importance of Comparing Methods of Instruction

While various methods of teaching may provide desired results (Saville, 2006), different

methods of instruction should be studied for effectiveness, so that the best method can be utilized

for specific situations (Anderson and Walker, 2003; Poston et al., 2005). In one study, plant

propagation principles were taught to students using instructional video and face-to-face

demonstration. Students who learned from the demonstration reported better clarity, while

students who saw the video performed better on a quiz (Gomez, 2004). Behavioral methods of

classroom instruction as opposed to a lecture format have been available and supported since the

1950s (Saville, 2006). Interactive instruction in horticultural topics is believed to produce better

results than a formal "textbook" approach (Felmley, 1902). Interactive learning is generally

perceived to be more successful than traditional classroom learning (Saville, 2006).

Factors for Success in Incorporating New Subjects into Curriculum

Communication is critical when adding horticultural topics to school programs. Lack of

communication has historically been a considerable obstacle in incorporating arboricultural and

horticultural subjects to a curriculum (Phibbs and Relf, 2005). Success in incorporating

horticulture into the classroom is most realistic when teachers and administration staff are both

highly involved (Klemmer et al., 2005).

Historically, Active Learning Outperforms Lecture and Passive Learning

Previous studies have shown that more active learning is highly beneficial in comparison

to "passive learning", such as playing versus watching others play (Bricklin, 1990). The more

passive time, such as watching TV, a child or adolescent spent the more likely they were to have

poor educational achievement (Hancox, 2005, and Morgan, 1993.). A previous study related

girls' exposure to greenery to increased test performance and concentration (Faber Taylor et al.,

2002).

Students' Learning Styles May be Changing

Exposure to television and other media has been compared to an "impending disaster" of

which the final results are not yet known (Shifrin, 2006); specific interactions between media

exposure and performance in school have not yet been determined (Borzekowski, 2005). This

"disaster" is the unknown result of today's youths' extreme immersion in television and other

media. Children are stated to be exposed to nature today only through "electronic detachment"

(Louv., 2005). The effects will not be known until a multitude of studies are conducted on youth

now, as they progress through social, emotional, and physical maturation, and as the adults they

become. Today's children are surrounded by more media, such as television and video games,

than ever before (Reading, 2004). Preliminary, incomprehensive consequences to this exposure

are beginning to surface. It has been shown that young adults who were exposed to the frequent

visual stimulation of such media as children are more receptive to graphic novels with limited

text than to standard text-only books (Bucher, 2004). This could certainly indicate that instead

of media impeding students' ability to learn, it could be affecting the style in which they learn.

Educators have been encouraged to include graphic novels, a growing genre, in middle and

secondary classrooms (Bucher, 2004). Instead of media reducing academic achievement, it

might change learning styles. This is a contrast to the generally- accepted perception that

television decreases students ability to perform. More research is required to answer this

question. If learning styles are being affected by media use among children, education will need

to change drastically to reflect changed learning styles, or overall media use would need to be

reduced so that instructional styles would not have to adapt.

Concerns over Standardized Testing

Education in schools across the nation is based on standardized testing. Standardized

testing for schools specifically in Florida are based on the Sunshine State Standards, which are

described as "appropriate things for students to know and be able to master" (Anon., 2005).

Since 1988, the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT) has been the method used to

measure and determine the success of schools throughout the state of Florida in meeting these

standards. Approximately $42 million is spent annually by the State of Florida to develop,

administer, and score the FCAT (Anon., 2005). Many have expressed concern that these tests

may not be accurately measuring success in Florida schools (Anon., 2005).

Time allocated for recess and physical education has dramatically been decreased, and that

is in the schools that still provide any type of this important activity. Time outdoors, including

gym class, has been lost, slated as a waste, to time set aside for test preparation (Louv 2005).

CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

To determine the ability of sixth grade students to comprehend and recognize structural

defects in trees, one-hundred-eighty sixth grade students from Seminole Middle School in

Plantation, Nova Middle School in Davie, Plantation Middle School in Plantation, in the

Broward County, Florida school district, were studied. Class size ranged from 20 to 25. Either

three or four classes were utilized from each school. The schools represented Florida

Comprehensive Assessment (FCAT) school grades of A, B, and C (Anon. 2006). The FCAT

exam is given to students in grades 1-12, to test their knowledge of the Sunshine State Standards,

or statewide-accepted "appropriate things for students to know and be able to master" (Florida,

2005). The grades of A, B, and C, are assigned to schools based on their overall performance,

with the grade of A being the most desirable. A school graded 'A' based on its FCAT scores is

considered to be highly successful in teaching its students the Sunshine State Standards. Schools

graded 'B', 'C', 'D', and 'E', are each considered less successful than the grades above them.

Five container grown mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni) trees (Figure 2-1) were used in

this study to demonstrate the most common defects in trees. One species was used to eliminate

confusion, which could have been caused by students perceiving a specie's unique traits as a

structural defect. Using only one species allowed for less interference from multiple factors.

The trees were potted in 3 gallon containers and clearly labeled to correspond with pre-test and

post-test questions. The defects represented were: circling/girdling roots (Figure 3-2),

leaning/bent/broken/damaged trunk (Figure 3-3), co-dominant trunks and included bark (Figure

3-4). A tree with no apparent defects was also included as an experimental control (Figure 3-5).

Trees on school grounds were used for the experiential, outdoor-instructed classes. Prior

to this study, the school grounds at each school were inspected and representative trees with each

of the structural defects were chosen for the hands-on, experiential instruction (Figures 3-7, 3-9).

There was one tree representative of a tree with no apparent defects.

Preparations for the passive, lecture and photographic type of classroom instruction

included photographing the structural defects and printing the photographs on 1112" 17" paper

(Figures 3-6, 3-8). The photos were laminated for durability.

The classroom instruction was presented as an enrichment activity to each of the classes.

Each class was presented with the 5 trees (Figures 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5). The pre-test

(Appendix A) was administered to all classes prior to instruction. The pre-test was in two parts;

one part consisted of basic arboricultural knowledge and the second part measured the students'

ability to recognize structural defects. Students were given instructions to "take their best guess"

if they did not understand the question. Students worked individually and were given 10 minutes

to complete the pre-test (Klemmer et al., 2005).

All pre-tests were collected prior to the next step in the study. This was to ensure that no

one had the advantage of recording the answers for the post-test. Following the pre-test, each

class received their respective instruction: hands-on, experiential outdoor instruction or

photographic, classroom-style instruction.

The classes designated to learn outdoors on their school grounds were given a very brief

explanation of the defects they would be looking for. The proper growth structure, such a a

straight, single trunk, was explained as the preferred structure to the defect, such as a codominant

trunk that looks like a "Y". Students were guided in a walk around their school campus and told

to look for the specific defects. Members of each class were able to view at least one example of

each defect in their school landscape (Figures 3-7, 3-9). Students were asked to look for the

defects as they were led on a walk around their campus. While no defects were pointed out by

the instructor, the instructor would ask the students to identify a defect in a particular tree if no

one recognized it.

Classes designated for indoor instruction were shown all of the prepared photographs in a

lecture-style presentation. The preferred structure, such as roots that grow away from the trunk,

was either explained or shown in a photograph (Figure 3-10), and then compared to the defect,

such as circling roots, in another photograph (Figure 3-6). Each photograph was walked around

the classroom so that each student could get a close-up view of the particular defect.

After classes received their respective instruction, a Post-test (Appendix B) was

administered. As in the pre-test, classes were instructed to answer a different set of questions

regarding basic arboricultural knowledge in the one part and to record the defects they

recognized in each tree in another part.

The data obtained from 180 pre-tests and 180 post-tests were subjected chi-square

analysis. The main potential effects [method of instruction, FCAT school grade, gender] were

analyzed to determine their effect on students' performance in both general knowledge questions

and recognition of structural defects in trees.

Chi square analysis is used to compare data which falls into definitive categories. In a

random, non-biased sample, it is expected that data will fall into categories with equal

probability. The expected equal probability is known as the null hypothesis. Chi square analysis

allows for a statistical analysis to explain deviations to the null hypothesis; deviations may be

indicative of a reaction of a particular factor or it can be due to randomness. Chi square analysis

can answer this.

Contingency tables (Appendix C) were set up to analyze data using the chi-square

analysis. First, a count of responses, or observed values, was compiled. The observed values

were converted into percentages. Next, the expected values were calculated. Each column and

row of the observed values was summed, and a final value was calculated as the sum of all

columns and rows. The expected value was calculated by taking the product of each position's

corresponding row sum and column sum, and dividing this by the sum of sums. The chi-square

value for each position was calculated by taking the square of the difference between each

observed and expected value divided by the expected value. The sum of the chi-square values

within each contingency table was compared to a critical value from the chi-square table. If the

chi square value was larger than the critical value, it was stated that the groups being compared

were statistically different, or the null hypothesis was rejected. If the chi-square value was

smaller, the null hypothesis was accepted; the samples were not stated to be statistically

different.

Data collected from general knowledge question portions of both the pre-test and post-

test were compiled to represent the knowledge base of the overall population. Data collected

from general knowledge questions were also analyzed to compare responses based on gender and

also to compare responses based on the FCAT grade assigned to each school. General

arboricultural knowledge was not a part of the instruction. However, the data collected was

analyzed between schools, gender, and instructional method.

Data collected in the structural defect recognition portion of the pre-test was compiled to

determine the starting knowledge base for all students. This data was subjected to chi-square

analysis to determine if students were equally able to recognize defects before instruction.

Gender and FCAT grade assigned to each school was analyzed to determine if any group was

more able to recognize structural defects prior to instruction.

Data collected in the structural defect recognition portion of the post-test was compiled to

represent all students' performance after instruction. This data was compared to the pre-test

structural recognition data for all students to determine if the instruction as a whole was

successful. The data was partitioned into subsets of the whole population: all females, all males,

all of school 'A', all of school 'B', all of school 'C', all students exposed to the outdoor,

experiential instruction, and all students exposed to the lecture-style presentation.

Figure 3-1. Five mahogany trees (Swietenia mahagoni) used in this study.. Photograph taken
April, 2006.

Figure 3-2. Mahogany tree (Swietenia mahagoni) used in this study to demonstrate
circling/girdling roots. Photograph taken April, 2006.

Figure 3-3 Mahogany tree (Swietenia mahagoni) used in this study to demonstrate
leaning/bent/broken/damaged trunk. Photograph taken April, 2006.

Figure 3-4. Mahogany tree (Swietenia mahagoni) used in this study to demonstrate attachments
of equal sizes, codominant trunks and included bark. Photograph taken April, 2006.

Figure 3-5. Mahogany tree (Swietenia mahagoni) used in this study to demonstrate a tree with
no apparent defects. Photograph taken April, 2006.

4

Figure 3-6. Photographs of circling roots used in the traditional lecture portion of this study.
Photograph taken February, 2006.

Figure 3-7. Photos of circling roots on school grounds used in the experiential-style instruction
portion of this study. Photograph taken in May, 2006.

Figure 3-8. Photos of codominant trunk used in the traditional lecture portion of this study.
Photograph taken February, 2006.

Figure 3-9. Photos of codominant trunk on school grounds used in the experiential-style
instruction portion of this study. Photograph taken May, 2006.

Figure 3-10. Photographs of desirable root system used in the traditional lecture portion of this
study. Photographs taken February, 2006.

b. & .

Figure 3-11. Photographs of broken, leaning, damaged trunks used in the traditional lecture
portion of this study. Photographs taken February, 2006.

a. ,

b .\.

CHAPTER 4
RESULTS

Recognition of Structural Defects Pre-Test and Post-Test

There was a significant improvement in ability to identify to identify structural defects in

the sample trees between the pre-test and post-test for the population as a whole (Table 4-1).

Regardless of a school's FCAT grade, gender, or method of instruction, all groups improved in

structural defect recognition (Tables 4-2, 4-3, 4-4, 4-5).

Recognition of Structural Defects Pre-Test and Post-Test as a Function of School

For trees, #1-5, there was a significant difference in school performances pre-test (Table

4-6), however this difference did not correspond to the schools' FCAT grades. A higher school

score on the FCAT exam did not correlate to a higher score on the pre-test or on the post-test.

Recognition of Structural Defects Pre-Test and Post-Test as a Function of Gender

For all trees, #1-5, there was no significant difference between all males and females,

both pre-test and post-test (Tables 4-3, 4-5). This indicates that both males and females

performed equally both pre- test and made significant and equal progress in recognizing

structural defects in trees. Neither males nor females performed better than the other.

Recognition of Structural Defects in Trees as a Function of Method of Instruction

For all trees, #1-5, there was a significant difference between performances based on

methods of instruction (Table 4-6). Data indicate that students learned, but students taught in the

indoor classroom performed better after instruction than did those who learned in the outdoor

setting (Table 4-6). There is a significant difference between performances based on methods of

instruction.

Performance in General Arboricultural Knowledge Questions

For all general knowledge questions in the pre-test, numbered 1-6, students recognized the

correct response on average 67% of the time (Table 4-7). Rate of success ranged from 23.89%

to 89.44% (Table 4-7).

60.00% of students are able to recognize that not all trees lose their leaves in the fall.

80.56% of students were able to recognize that trees planted in cities require more care. A

majority of students, 83.33%, 75.00%, and 51.11%, respectively, were able to recognize the

correct responses that when people care for trees properly, the trees might live longer, will be

healthier, and will be safer. 70.56% of students were able to recognize that pruning can be

beneficial but must be done properly. Only 23.89% of students were able to recognize that a

Sequoia tree grew the biggest out of the four trees provided. (Table 4-7)

Performance in General Arboricultural Knowledge Questions as a Function of Gender

For all general knowledge questions in the pre-test, the null hypothesis, there was no

significant difference in general arboricultural knowledge between males and females, is

accepted (Table 4-8).

Performance in General Arboricultural Knowledge Questions as a Function School

Data collected for all general knowledge questions indicate that there is no difference in

general arboricultural knowledge between the three schools. 2 out of 11 are significantly

different in comparing schools graded A, B, and C to the total population (Table 4-9).

Table 4-1. Summary scores of all sixth grade students (n= 180), for pre-test and post-test on
recognition of observable defects in mahogany trees (Swietenia mahagoni). Chi-
square critical value at the P= 0.05 level is 11.07; significant differences at the P=
0.05 level are indicated by *.

Tree Defect on % All % All Chi-Square
Number the tree Students Students
Identifying Identifying
the Defect the Defect
Correctly Correctly
Pre-Test Post-Test
1 No defect 40.00 52.78 6.74
2 Trunk 82.78 88.89 7.88
3 Trunk 77.78 76.67 33.37*
3 Included 27.78 25.00 33.37*
Bark
3 Codominant 21.11 57.22 33.37*
4 Trunk 53.89 52.78 31.23*
4 Codominant 31.11 81.67 31.23*
4 Attachments 30.00 37.22 31.23*
of Equal
Sizes
5 Circling 46.11 78.33 23.80*
Roots

Table 4-2. Summary scores of all sixth grade students (n= 180), by school A vs. B vs. C, for
post-test recognition of observable defects in mahogany trees (Swietenia mahagoni).
Chi-square critical value at the P= 0.05 is 18.31; significant differences at the P= 0.05
level is indicated by *

Tree Defect % All % School % School % School Chi-Square
Students A B C
Identifying Identifying Identifying Identifying
Correctly Correctly Correctly Correctly
Pre-Test Post-Test Post-Test Post-Test
1 No defect 40.00 59.09 34.41 53.49 33.59*
2 Trunk 82.78 88.64 40.86 88.37 44.30*
3 Trunk 77.78 70.45 40.86 83.72 72.03*
3 Included 27.78 20.45 21.51 30.23 72.03*
Bark
3 Codominant 21.11 50.00 15.05 65.12 72.03*
4 Trunk 53.89 31.82 40.86 72.09 92.39*
4 Codominant 31.11 75.00 15.05 72.09 92.39*
4 Attachments 30.00 25.00 13.98 39.53 92.39*
of Equal
Sizes
5 Circling 46.11 68.18 24.73 79.07 50.95*
Roots

Table 4-3. Summary scores of all sixth grade students (n= 180), by gender, for pre-test
recognition of observable defects in mahogany trees (Swietenia mahagoni). Chi-
square critical value at the P= 0.05 level is 11.07; significant differences at the P=
0.05 level are indicated by *

Tree Defect % Males % Females Chi-Square
Identifying Identifying
Correctly Correctly
Pre-Test Pre-Test
1 No defect 37.89 42.86 0.82
2 Trunk 83.16 83.33 6.42
3 Trunk 76.84 78.57 2.47
3 Included 24.21 30.95 2.47
Bark
3 Codominant 21.05 21.43 2.47
4 Trunk 54.74 52.38 4.07
4 Codominant 35.79 25.00 4.07
4 Attachments 26.32 34.52 4.07
of Equal
Sizes
5 Circling 41.05 52.38 3.33
Roots

Table 4-4. Summary scores of all sixth grade students (n= 180), by gender, for post-test
recognition of observable defects in mahogany trees (Swietenia mahagoni). Chi-
square critical value at the P= 0.05 level is 11.07; significant differences at the P=
0.05 level are indicated by *

Tree Defect % Males % Females Chi-Square
Identifying Identifying
Correctly Correctly
Post-Test Post-Test
1 No defect 54.74 50.00 3.47
2 Trunk 86.32 91.67 9.85
3 Trunk 70.53 83.33 9.92
3 Included 18.95 30.95 9.92
Bark
3 Codominant 64.21 48.81 9.92
4 Trunk 46.32 59.25 4.88
4 Codominant 82.11 80.95 4.88
4 Attachments 35.79 39.29 4.88
of Equal
Sizes
5 Circling 80.00 76.19 1.44
Roots

Table 4-5. Summary scores of all sixth grade students (n= 180), by instructional method,
traditional, photographic vs. experiential, hands-on, for pre-test and post-test
recognition of observable defects in mahogany trees (Swietenia mahagoni). Chi-
square critical value at the P= 0.05 level is 18.31; significant differences at the P=
0.05 level are indicated by *.

Tree Defect % All % % Chi-Square
Students Traditional Experiential
Recognizing Recognizing Recognizing
Pre-Test Post-Test Post-Test
1 No defect 32.96 10.53 30.95 44.45*
2 Trunk 83.24 100 72.62 19.76*
3 Trunk 78.21 94.74 57.14 42.84*
3 Included 27.93 28.42 21.43 42.84*
Bark
3 Codominant 21.23 56.84 58.33 42.84*
4 Trunk 54.19 67.37 36.90 58.29*
4 Codominant 31.28 95.79 66.67 58.29*
4 Attachments 30.17 43.16 30.95 58.29*
of Equal
Sizes
5 Circling 46.37 96.84 58.33 48.71*
Roots

Table 4-6. Summary scores of all sixth grade students (n= 180), by school A vs. B vs. C, for pre-
test recognition of observable defects in mahogany trees (Swietenia mahagoni). Chi-
square critical value at the P= 0.05 level is 18.31; significant differences at the P=
0.05 level are indicated by *

Tree Defect % School % School % School Chi-Square
A B C
Identifying Identifying Identifying
Correctly Correctly Correctly
Pre-Test Pre-Test Pre-Test
1 No defect 47.73 34.41 44.19 29.18
2 Trunk 75.00 40.86 81.40 25.98*
3 Trunk 77.27 40.86 79.07 26.18*
3 Included 27.27 21.51 39.53 26.18*
Bark
3 Codominant 15.91 15.05 27.91 26.18*
4 Trunk 56.82 40.86 46.51 28.88*
4 Codominant 18.18 15.05 46.51 28.88*
4 Attachments 22.73 13.98 27.91 28.88*
of Equal
Sizes
5 Circling 34.09 24.73 51.16 22.85*
Roots

Table 4-7. Summary of all sixth grade students'
knowledge questions.

(n= 180) performance on general arboricultural

Question # Correct Question Percentage of Students Recognizing
Response
What does a Pre-Test 1 la: Water 89.44%
tree need to
live?
What does a Pre-Test 1 lb: Soil 77.78%
tree need to
live?
All trees Pre-Test 2 2b: False 60.00%
lose their
leaves in the
fall.
Trees with Pre-Test 3 3a: Will live 75.00%
good longer.
structure:
Trees with Pre-Test 3 3c: Will be safer in 39.44%
good the future.
structure:
The bark on Pre-Test 4 4d: Is different 86.67%
different from tree to tree.
trees:
A plant: Pre-Test 5 5a: Is a living 77.78%
organism.
A plant: Pre-Test 4 5e: Is able to make 62.22%
its own food.
Trees: Pre-Test 6 6a: Need more care 80.56%
when they are
planted in cities.
When Post-Test 1 la: Trees might 83.33%
people care live longer.
for trees
properly:
When Post-Test 1 Ic: Trees will be 75.00%
people care healthier.
for trees
properly:
When Post-Test 1 Id: Trees will be 51.11%
people care safer.
for trees
properly:____

The seed of Post Test 2 2c: An acorn. 58.89%
an oak tree
is called:
Trees with Post Test 3 3a: Will live 80.56%
good longer.
structure:
Trees with Post Test 3 3b: Will be safer. 55.56%
good
structure:
Which tree Post Test 4 4b: Sequoia 23.89%
grows
biggest?
When Post Test 5 5c: Pruning can 70.56%
pruning a be beneficial but
tree: must be done
properly.

Table 4-8. Summary all sixth grade students' (n= 180) performance on general arboricultural
knowledge questions, males vs. females vs. all students.

Question Correct % of Males % of % of All Critical Chi-Square
Answer Answering Females Students Value
Correctly Answering Answering
Correctly Correctly
What does a Water 89.47 89.29 89.94 12.59 3.30
tree need to
live?
What does a Soil 77.89 78.57 78.21 12.59 3.30
tree need to
live?
All trees lose False 60.34 59.43 60.15 5.99 0.09
their leaves
in the fall
(True/False)
Trees with Will live 71.58 78.57 75.42 9.49 1.34
good longer.
structure:
Trees with Will be 40.00 39.29 39.66 9.49 1.34
good safer in the
structure: future.
The bark on Is different 84.21 89.29 87.15 12.6 0.14
different from tree
trees: to tree.
A plant: Is a living 76.84 79.76 78.21 18.3 4.28
organism.
A plant: Cannot 25.26 26.19 25.70 18.3 4.28
move from
one spot.
A plant: Is able to 65.26 58.33 62.57 18.3 4.28
make its
own food.
The seed of An acorn. 65.26 51.19 59.22 12.6 3.60
an Oak tree
is called:
Trees with May live 78.95 82.14 81.01 9.49 0.54
good longer.
structure:
Trees with Will be 58.95 51.19 55.87 9.49 0.54
good safer.
structure:
Which tree Sequoia. 27.37 20.24 24.02 12.6 2.36
grows
biggest?

When Pruning 77.89 61.90 70.95 9.49 4.38
pruning a can be
tree: beneficial
but must
be done
~_______properly._____________________________

Table 4-9. Summary all sixth grade students' (n= 180) performance on general arboricultural
knowledge questions, school A vs. B vs. C vs. all students.

Question Correct % of All % of % of % of Critical Chi-
Answer Students School A School B School C Value Square
Answering Answering Answering Answering
Correctly Correctly Correctly Correctly
What does a Water 89.94 84.09 93.55 86.05 16.9 16.28
tree need to
live?
What does a Soil 78.21 75.00 75.79 41.67 16.9 16.28
tree need to
live?
All trees False 60.34 52.27 68.82 48.84 7.81 6.78
lose their
leaves in
the fall
(True/False)
Trees with Will live 75.42 79.55 72.04 76.74 12.6 9.63
good longer.
structure:
Trees with Will be 39.66 27.27 47.31 34.88 12.6 9.63
good safer in
structure: the
future.
The bark on Is 87.15 84.09 91.40 79.07 16.9 17.77*
different different
trees: from tree
to tree.
A plant: Is a 78.21 70.45 86.02 67.44 25.0 2.82
living
organism.
A plant: Cannot 25.70 25.00 32.26 11.63 25.0 2.82
move
from one
spot.
A plant: Is able to 62.57 61.36 60.22 67.44 25.0 2.82
make its
own
food.
The seed of An acorn. 59.22 63.64 61.29 48.84 16.9 24.99
an Oak tree
is called:
Trees with May live 81.01 81.81 38.71 81.72 12.6 5.94
good longer.
structure:

Trees with Will be 55.87 50.00 23.66 60.22 12.6 5.94
good safer.
structure:
Which tree Sequoia. 24.02 20.45 27.96 18.60 16.9 26.70*
grows
biggest?
When Pruning 70.95 68.18 32.26 75.27 12.6 9.08
pruning a can be
tree: beneficial
but must
be done
~______properly.___________________________________

CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION

General Observations

Students seemed to generally enjoy this instruction, as did their classroom teachers.

During the pre-test, students expressed feelings of frustration in that they were being tested on

concepts that had not previously presented to them. This may be a result of the "test-

preparation" mentality to which students are exposed. Sit seemed as if students were not very

prepared to learn about everyday, real life subjects. This could impede their acceptance and

enjoyments of studying subjects for reasons other that success on an exam.

Many of the students exposed to the outdoor, hands-on instruction in tree defects seemed

less interested in the class and highly distracted. In comparison to the traditional, indoor,

photographic-type sessions, the outdoor class sessions were more difficult to control. Many of

the students who were taken outdoors exhibited poor behavior.

It was suggested that students may not spend enough time outdoors during the school

day. The outdoor class sessions may have felt like a recess to many students. While they were

being introduced to new concepts, they seemed almost indifferent to being surrounded by their

everyday environment. In contrast, students exposed to the photographs seemed interested,

fascinated, and delighted by the images. This could imply an extremely visual inclination in 6th

grade students who participated in this study. Students may be accustomed to intense visual

exposure, so much that they need this impact in order to respond. Another possible explanation

to this phenomenon could be that the instructor may have been more skilled in the lecture-type

instruction and less effective in leading a hands-on session.

Most students reacted positively to the post-test. It was observed that students were

proud of being able to recognize the correct answers. Several students indicated a desire to be

more involved with the care and selection of trees both at home and around their school grounds.

This was considered a success, in that many students made cognitive associations what they

learned in one instruction to what went on in their outdoor environments, as opposed to

connecting it to only a correct answer on an exam. Student comments indicative of their new

interests showed that they can easily grasp these concepts and can become more caring stewards

for our urban forests.

One significant obstacle in setting up this study was to schedule time with the classes. It

was alarming that teachers were concerned that the instruction on tree structural defects was not

on the FCATs and that one class period of FCAT preparation would be lost. Most students'

frustration in that they were being tested on concepts in the pre-test that had not previously

presented to them suggests that they are being conditioned to perform well on tests. Many

students had a lot of trouble making guesses and thinking outside of test-related studies.

Students are being taught to be successful on the FCATs, as a school's overall score is

beneficial to the school. For this reason, students may not be as ready to explore subjects that are

related to success in daily life, as opposed to success on standardized exams. Students exposed

to the photographs were interested, fascinated, and delighted by the images. While the images

may have been of unfamiliar concepts, they were examples that were not outside of their ability

to comprehend. The excitement over the images was surprising and unexpected.

Recognition of Structural Defects Pre-Test and Post-Test as a Function of FCAT Grade

For all trees, #1-5, there was a significant difference between school performances pre-test.

However, this difference did not correspond with the 'A' school consistently performing better

that the other schools. Test results indicated that school C students were most successful in

recognizing the correct structural defects on most pre-test and post-test questions, with school A

students in the middle, and school B students identifying the fewest.

This study resulted in an overall increase in the ability of students to recognize structural

defects in trees following both types of instruction. The biggest contrast in expectations was that

the students who were instructed with the traditional photographic classroom method scored

higher in the post-test than those who learned in the experiential method. One explanation might

be that there were fewer distractions in the classroom. The indoor classroom is the typical

environment to which students are accustomed. Another explanation could be that today's youth

are more completely immersed in media: they watch more television and play more video games

than previous generations. Learning styles may be changing because of the intensive media

exposure. The results of this study could raise an important question: Does education need to

shift teaching methods to reflect this change in youth activities?

Recognition of Structural Defects Pre-Test and Post-Test as a Function of Gender

Success in structural defect recognition significantly increased from the pre-test to the

post-test. Defect recognition in the trees both pre-test and post-test was not affected by gender.

This shows that males and females were equally competent in both recognizing tree structural

defects presented in this study and in learning to recognize them. While there may be previous

assumptions that scientific ability is predetermined by gender (Tindall 2004, Nordvik 1998, and

Sonnert 1995), neither gender had any advantage over the other in this study, a positive sign for

today's equality-conscious society.

Recognition of Structural Defects in Trees as a Function of Method of Instruction

While all groups were successful in learning to recognize structural defects in trees, the

group that learned via the traditional classroom lecture with photographs had higher scores

following their instruction. As previously mentioned, students may currently be less exposed to

outdoor experiences and therefore could be more easily distracted outside of their classroom.

The difference between instructional methods may also be attributed to the skill or deficiency of

the instructor. An additional possible explanation may be the students' attraction to the visually-

stimulating photographs.

Performance in General Arboricultural Knowledge Questions

It is gratifying to know that most students were able to understand many basic

arboricultural knowledge principles without prior instruction. A majority of students understand

that trees need more care when planted in cities, and that proper care and tree structure result in

healthier, safer trees that will live longer. Most students recognized that a difference exists

between the right way and a wrong way to prune a tree, and that correct pruning can be

beneficial to the tree.

The existence of a good base of arboricultural knowledge is a positive indication that sixth

grade students are prepared to learn more complex principles of tree care.

Performance in General Arboricultural Knowledge Questions as a Function of Gender

For all general arboricultural knowledge questions, there was no significant differerence in

test scores between males and females, suggesting that sixth graders have equal general

arboricultural knowledge regardless of gender. As with the success in structural defect

recognition, this success could be considered to be a positive finding for our equality-conscious

society.

Performance in General Arboricultural Knowledge Questions as a Function of School

Only two responses resulted in significant difference between schools; the majority was

statistically the same. Pre-test question #4, the bark on different trees is... (different from tree to

tree), post-test question #4, which tree grows biggest?... (sequoia) were the only questions for

which results indicated significant differences between schools. More students from school B

recognized correct answers on pre-test question #4 and post-test question #4. This is in direct

contrast with pre-test and post-test tree structural defect recognition, in which school B

repeatedly recognized the correct answer less often than the other two schools. It was expected

that the school with an FCAT grade of A would be most successful on the general knowledge

questions, as FCAT schools with a grade of A are generally assumed to be more successful.

More information and study would be needed to make any claims regarding the successes or

deficiencies in the FCAT's ability to measure students' knowledge.

FCAT exams are a standard, minimally subjective measure that are currently applied on a

state-wide level. Data collected from the general knowledge questions indicates there is no

difference in general arboricultural knowledge based on FCAT grade. There is no logical pattern

such as students from School 'A' being consistently more successful in identifying the correct

answer.

Recommendations

Children may have been so distracted in the outdoor instructional sessions because it is not

a common experience for them. The findings of this study may suggest that a combination of

two items needs to occur: education needs to change to mirror the changing needs of children

exposed to high levels of electronic media, and children need to be exposed to the outdoors much

more than they currently are, so that they can appreciate and learn from an outdoor educational

experience. These two options need to be investigated more thoroughly. Future studies should

focus on current learning styles as related to the results of excessive media exposure. There are a

multitude of benefits associated with children spending time outdoors; it would be highly

beneficial for them to spend more time outside and less time immersed in media.

Students and teachers would benefit from a more unified curriculum across the board, with

more focus on real-life experience and less on standardized exam performance. The

development of stronger critical thinking skills in children should be an aspect of future

curriculum changes.

Children should run, play, and learn from the environment around them the trees, plants,

grass, and insects not the TV and video games. This study sends a clear message: children

desperately need to get outside to play and learn!

CHAPTER 6

FUTURE WORK

Incorporating Arboriculture and Horticulture Into the Curriculum

This study has shown that principles of arboriculture and horticulture can positively and

easily be incorporated into existing curriculum and that students can learn them effectively

following passive, photographic instructional format. Structural defect recognition in trees and

other critical thinking exercises could be presented to different ages and grades. Other important

arboricultural and horticultural concepts should be studied as to the feasibility of their

incorporation into the elementary and high school curriculum. Examples of some of these

concepts are: proper planting, pruning young trees for structure, care and maintenance of

maturing and mature trees, and recognizing nutritional deficiencies, common pests and diseases

in the landscape.

Effectiveness of Measuring Knowledge through FCAT Exams

More research is necessary to determine whether test-taking ability or actual knowledge

is the focus in schools in the state of Florida. The relationship between a school's FCAT

performance, their actual collective knowledge, their test-taking abilities, and their ability to

learn should be explored.

Effective Methods of Instructing Youth

The higher post-test scores among students who were taught using a passive photographic

format may raise the important question of whether education needs to shift to reflect changes in

youth exposure to media. This issue should be studied more comprehensively using varied

populations, arboricultural and horticultural subjects, and instructional methods.

APPENDIX A
PRE-TEST

Pre-test used in this study and given to all students prior to exposing them to their designated

method of instruction. Side (page) one provides space to record demographic information:

student's name, age, gender, class, and grade. This information was used to ensure pre-test and

post-test data was grouped appropriately. Side (page) one provides space to record the defects)

present in each tree. Side (page) two presents general arboricultural knowledge questions. This

pre-test was presented in-class regardless of designated instructional method and collected

immediately upon completion and prior to the instruction on structural defect recognition in

trees. For all questions on both sides one and two, students were instructed that more than one

answer might be correct and to circle as many as they believed were correct. Administered in

May, 2006.

PRE-TEST

NAME
AGE
SEX
CLASS
GRADE

Look at the trees, labeled #1 #5 and use them to answer the following. More than one answer
can be circled.

a. circling/ girdling roots
b. leaning/bent/broken/damaged trunk
Tree#1 c. included bark
d. codominant trunks
e. attachments of equal sizes
f. no apparent defects
a. circling/ girdling roots
b. leaning/bent/broken/damaged trunk
Tree2 included bark
d. codominant trunks
e. attachments of equal sizes
f. no apparent defects
a. circling/ girdling roots
b. leaning/bent/broken/damaged trunk
Tree 3 included bark
d. codominant trunks
e. attachments of equal sizes
f. no apparent defects
a. circling/ girdling roots
b. leaning/bent/broken/damaged trunk
Tree #4 included bark
d. codominant trunks
e. attachments of equal sizes
f. no apparent defects
a. circling/ girdling roots
b. leaning/bent/broken/damaged trunk
Tree #5 included bark
d. codominant trunks
e. attachments of equal sizes
f. no apparent defects

PRE-TEST

More than one answer can be circled.

What does a tree need to live?
a. water
#1 .
b. soil
c. earthworms
d. grass

All trees lose their leaves in the fall
#2 a. True
b. False

Trees with good structure:
a. will live longer
#3 b. are no different than trees with bad structure
c. will be safer in the future

The bark on different trees:
a. Is exactly the same
#4 b. Is always rough
c. Is not important to the tree
d. Is different from tree to tree
A plant:
a. Is a living organism
b. Cannot move from one spot
#5 c. Is only different from an animal because it cannot talk
d. Is always grown in soil
e. Is able to make its own food
f. Always has green leaves

Trees
#6 a. need more care when they are planted in cities
b. don't need people to do anything for them

APPENDIX B
POST-TEST

Post-test used in this study and given to all students following exposure to their designated

method of instruction. Side (page) one provides space to record demographic information:

student's name, age, gender, class, and grade. This information was used to ensure pre-test and

post-test data was grouped appropriately. Side (page) one provides space to record the defects)

present in each tree. Side (page) two presents general arboricultural knowledge questions. This

post-test was presented in-class regardless of designated instructional method and was collected

immediately upon completion. For all questions on both sides one and two, students were

instructed that more than one answer might be correct and to circle as many as they believed

were correct. Students were required to work independently on the post-test. Administered in

May, 2006.

POST-TEST

NAME
AGE
SEX
CLASS
GRADE

Look at the trees, labeled #1 #5 and use them to answer the following. More than one answer
can be circled.

a. circling/ girdling roots
b. leaning/bent/broken/damaged trunk
Tree#1 c. included bark
d. codominant trunks
e. attachments of equal sizes
f. no apparent defects
a. circling/ girdling roots
b. leaning/bent/broken/damaged trunk
Tree2 included bark
d. codominant trunks
e. attachments of equal sizes
f. no apparent defects
a. circling/ girdling roots
b. leaning/bent/broken/damaged trunk
Tree #3 included bark
d. codominant trunks
e. attachments of equal sizes
f. no apparent defects
a. circling/ girdling roots
b. leaning/bent/broken/damaged trunk
Tree #4 included bark
d. codominant trunks
e. attachments of equal sizes
f. no apparent defects
a. circling/ girdling roots
b. leaning/bent/broken/damaged trunk
Tree #5 included bark
d. codominant trunks
e. attachments of equal sizes
f. no apparent defects

POST-TEST

More than one answer can be circled.

When people care for trees properly:
#1 a. trees might live longer
b. they are wasting their time
c. trees will be healthier
d. trees will be safer
The seed of an oak tree is called
a. an apple.
#2 b. a bulb
c. an acorn
d. a mushroom

Trees with good structure:
#3 a. will live longer
b. will be safer
c. are no different than trees with poor structure

Which tree grows biggest?
a. Crepe Myrtle
#4 b. Sequoia
c. Oak tree
d. Yellow Tabebuia

When pruning a tree:
#5 a. there is no right or wrong way
b. trees should not be pruned
c. pruning can be beneficial but must be done properly

APPENDIX C
EXAMPLE CONTINGENCY TABLE

Example contingency table. Calculated June-September, 2006. Chi-square analysis is used to

compare data which falls into definitive categories. In a random, non-biased sample, it is

expected that data will fall into categories with equal probability. The expected equal probability

is known as the null hypothesis. Chi-square analysis allows for a statistical analysis to explain

deviations to the null hypothesis; deviations may be indicative of a reaction of a particular factor

or it can be due to randomness. Chi-square analysis can answer this. Contingency tables are set

up to analyze data using the chi square analysis. First, a count of responses, or observed values,

is compiled. The observed values are converted into percentages by dividing the number of

responses by the total population of the group. Next, the expected values are calculated. Each

column and row of the observed values is summed, and a final value is calculated as the sum of

all columns and rows. The expected value is calculated by taking the product of each position's

corresponding row sum and column sum, and dividing this by the sum of sums. The chi square

value for each position is calculated by squaring the difference between each observed and

expected value divided by the expected value. The sum of the chi-square values within the

contingency table is compared to a critical value from the chi-square table. If the chi square

value is larger than the critical value, it is stated that the groups being compared are statistically

different, or the null hypothesis is rejected. If the chi-square value is smaller, the null hypothesis

is accepted; the samples are not stated to be statistically different. In this example, the null

hypothesis is accepted; samples are not considered statistically different.

Tree #3
Observed Incorrect Correct Correct Correct Incorrect Incorrect
Values
Circling Trunk Included Codominant Attachments of No apparent Totals
roots bark trunks equal sizes defects
Pre-Test, 28 89 33 25 27 19 221
Traditional__ _____
Pre-Test, 14 51 17 13 18 10 123
Outdoor
Observed
Values, %
Total
Pre-Test, 25.23% 80.18% 29.73% 22.52% 24.32% 17.12% 199.10%
Traditional
Pre-Test, 20.29% 73.91% 24.64% 18.84% 26.09% 14.49% 178.26%
Outdoor
Total 45.52% 154.09% 54.37% 41.36% 50.41% 31.61% 377.36%
Expected
Values

Pre-Test, 24.01% 81.30% 28.68% 21.82% 26.60% 16.68%
Traditional
Pre-Test, 21.50% 72.79% 25.68% 19.54% 23.81% 14.93%
Outdoor
Chi Square Chi-square = (Observed Value- Expected Value)2 / Expected Value
Values
Pre-Test, 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Traditional
Pre-Test, 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Outdoor
Totals 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Chi-square 0.73
Because the chi-square, 0.73, is smaller than the table value (11.07) at the 0.05 level with 5
degrees of freedom, we accept the null hypothesis (that there is no difference between the
students assigned to the two methods of instruction Pre-test) for tree #3.

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Laura Sanagorski was born on December 2, 1980, as the middle child of three girls. She

came to Florida from South-Central Pennsylvania in 2000. Her study of marine biology brought

her to Florida, but a new-found love of tropical and sub-tropical trees persuaded her to make it

her home. She graduated summa cum laude with a Bachelor of Science degree in environmental

horticulture from the University of Florida Tropical Research and Education Center in

Homestead. She is currently the City Landscaper for the City of Deerfield Beach, Florida.

Professional affiliations include the executive committee of the Florida Urban Forestry

Council, International Society of Arboriculture, Society of Municipal Arborists, Society of

American Foresters, and Professionals Educating and Advocating for Respect in Relationahips

(PEARR). She is an International Society of Arboriculture Certified Arborist.

Sanagorski's career goals and passions include increasing and improving our urban forests,

and to improve the health, soundness, and aesthetics of our environments and living spaces

specifically through proper arboricultural and horticultural practices, and through the education

of others.

	Title Page
	Dedication
	Acknowledgement
	Table of Contents
	List of Figures
	List of Tables
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Literature review
	Materials and methods
	Results
	Discussion
	Appendix A: Pre-test
	Appendix B: Post-test
	Appendix C: Example contingency...
	References
	Biographical sketch

Comparison of Two Methods Used to Teach Sixth Grade Students Recognition of Structural Defects in Trees

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