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An Ethno-Medical Description of Indian Health:
A Study of Normal and Pathological Conditions
Among the Seminole Indians of Florida
By
HOWARD HARVEY H1RSCHHORN
A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE COUNCIL OF
THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
August, 195P
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my appreciation to the members of my graduate
committee, Dr. J. M. Maclachlan, Head of the Department of Sociology
and Anthropology; Dr. 0. F. Quackenbush, Associate Professor; Dr. R. C.
Hoffman, Statistician, J. Hillis Miller Health Center; and Dr. M. E. Valk,
Department of Modern Languages, for their inspiration, guidance, sugges-
tions, and good natures in dealing with me and my manuscript. Apprecia-
tion is also extended to Dr. J. L. Goggin. Thanks also to the University
of Florida secretaries and office staffs who have not only tolerated me,
but given cheerful assistance.
My sincere thanks also go to Mr. Kenneth Marmon, recently
retired director of the Seminole Indian Agency at Dania, Florida;
his successor ir. Harrington, and the Agency staff; Miss Charlotte
Conrad of Miami, retired Pablic Health Nurse; Dr. Ai. Friediian, optom-
etrist, of :iaLi; Dr. W. C. Rentz, Jr., of Miami; Dr. Lieberman and
staff of the Medical Records Section at Jackson Memorial in liami;
the officers of the Florida State Board of Health, Bureau of Prevent-
able Diseases; Dr. C. i. Sharp, Director; my Mother ai3d Dad not only
generally, but also for yeoman duties and liaison activities concern-
ing this manuscript.
My thanks also to the Seminole Indians of Florida.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOLaLEDGLNTS . . . . .
LIST OF TABLES . . . . .
INTRODUCTION ........ ...... .
Chapter
I. BACKGROUND AND GENERAL CULTURE . .
II. RESUZE OF THE HEALTH PICTbRE: NARRATIVE
III. RESTIlE OF THE HEALTH PICTURE: STATISTICAL
IV. INDIVIDUAL TOPICS IN DETAIL . .
V. DISCUSSIOi AND CONCLUSION . . .
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . .
. .. ii
. iv
.... 26
. 26
* 35
. 64
S. 60
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1. Seminole Indian Population in Florida, 18.7-191 .
2. Seminole Indian Population in Florida, 1920-1935,
19 6-19 9 . . . . . .
3. Age, Sex and "Blood" Analysis of the Florida Seminole
Indian Population from 1920 to 193 . . .
h. Various Designations for the Florida Seminole Indians
and Languages According to Source . . .
5. Number of Cases Reported of Reported Conditons for the
Fiscal Years 1920 to 1935, 19h6 to 19h9 . .
6. Age at Delivery Including Previous Pregnancies and
Condition of the Newborn . . .
7. Type of Delivery, Previous Births, and Duration
of Labor . . . . . .
8. Blood Pressure and Pulse Values for Seminole Indians
in South Florida . . . . .
9. Foetal Heart Beats Per M{inute Among Newborn Seminole
Indians Delivered in the Hospital . . .
10. Carcinoma as Related to Age and Sex Among the Florida
Seminole Indians . . . ... .
Page
6
7
8
10
36
60
INTRODUCTION
Statement of Purpose and Organization
In this study an effort has been made to collect and describe
the conditions to which the Florida Seminole Indian is susceptible, and
thereby form a picture of his health situation; to learn to what extent-
and how-the Florida Seminole's health is affected by his own way of
life as well as by his surrounding physical and cultural environment;
and to watch for any condition or reaction which seems unexplained
through the cultural or environmental influences, but which might be
explained through the effect of any ethnic characteristics of the
Florida Seminole.
The paper is divided into five chapters. The first is arranged
for convenient reference to particular facets of the culture and back-
ground of the Florida Seminole Indian. Thus, ethnographical material
may be found readily for comparison with health and medical data
presented in the following chapters. The second and third chapters
present-narratively and statistically-a resume' of the Seminole
health picture available from 1919 to 1935, and from 1946 to 1949.
The fourth part presents in detail the data available from the exam-
ination of individual hospital and clinical records for the years
196 to 1949, as well as the results of surveys made among the
Seminoles in 1935, 1951, and 1952 by public and private agencies.
Chapter five discusses the medical and ethnographical finding as to
their significance in indicating transition, acculturation, and ethnic
immunity among the Florida Seminole Indians. The conclusions drawn
from this study are found at the end of the discussion.
Lack of sufficient medical description of the Florida Seminole
from "frontier" days makes it difficult to limit the discussion and
references wholly to this group. Data are, therefore, introduced from
other Amerindian areas and groups which might afford insight into, and
possible analogy with the Seminole situation.
1Method Employed in Preparing This Study
1. Preliminary library research was done on data already
available for the Florida Seminole Indian.
2. Personal interviews were held with present and past health
and Indian Agency officials.
3. At the Dania Indian Agency, Dania, Florida, the annual
reports for the years 1919 to 1935 were made available to me for
study. Also at this agency other records and correspondence provided
the basis for a compilation of patient-names and treatment rendered
for the years 1916 to 1948.
4. These patient-treatment lists served as an index for the
study of each of these patient's clinical and admission records at a
1The expression ethnic immunity is used here to mean any degree
of natural or acquired immunity expressed by members of this group, and
which could be characteristic of the whole group.
Racial immunity is a type of natural immunity (Jawetz, et al.,
1956: 109), and perhaps upon further ethnic evidence-and knowled-e in
the field of immunology--the expression ethnic immunity, might yield a
concept'of racial immunity.
large hospital where many Indians were treated. The diagnoses for
Indians treated at other hospitals in the State of Florida were tabu-
lated, but examination of each patient's record was not accomplished.
5. The results of a blood survey made in 1952 was made avail-
able by the Florida State Board of Health.
6. The results of an optical survey made in 1951 were made
available by a Miami optometrist.
7. With the data thus obtained from the above sources, the
collected facts were organized as a guide for further investigation
of facts yet desirable.
8. Library research was done on the health picture of the
Amerindian in general. Medical data dealing with any Amerindians were
reviewed. Data pertinent to the facts already found among the Florida
Seminole were noted, and leads to further investigation among the
Seminoles were noted and used in subsequent interviews and research.
CHAPTER I
BACKGROUND AND GENERAL CULTURE
General
The ethnographic and historical material in this section is
arranged to allow ready reference to the separate topics which the
reader may wish to consult, and to which the writer has referred in
presenting or discussing various health and medical conditions. The
topics include physical environment, history, population data, and
social and economic patterns.
Geographical Environment
The Florida Seminoles are today divided into two main groups.
The Cow Creek Seminole (Muskogean-speaking) occupy generally the
northern part of the Florida peninsula from Lake Okeechobee in south-
ern central Florida north, including the Brighton Reservation north-
west of the lake. The Mikasuki (Hitchiti-speaking) occupy generally
the southern part of the peninsula, including the area around Miami,
the Big Cypress Swamp and some camps along the Tamiami Trail leading
from Miami across the Everglades to the Gulf coast. There are also
commercial camps scattered about which may be inhabited by Indians who
have broken away from any tribal affiliations (Writer's Program 191h: 38).
Among the earliest reports concerning a group of Indians by the
name of Seminoles Bartram (Van Doren 1928: 182) reports in 1773-177h:
The Lower Creeks or Siminoles [sic3 possess a vast territory;
all east Florida and the greatest part of west Florida.
and further:
The country furnishes such a plenty and variety of supplies
for the nourishment of animals, that I can venture to assert,
that no part of the globe so abounds with wild game or creatures
fit for the food of man.
Physical Characteristics
Early reports of travelers in Florida during the 16th century
(Laudonniere), Spanish literature during the 17th century, the 18th
century (Bartram) and the 19th century (IMacCauley) give us much of our
early information on culture and history of the Florida Indians. Due,
however, to the changes introduced by admixture occasioned by the
migrations which contributed to the formation of the present Seminole
Nation, the more recent reports would probably be more suited to supply
a description of the Seminole as we know him today.
iMacCauley (observing in 1881) reports the Seminole as
brachycephalic, having a yellowish-brown skin, and exceeding six
feet in height for the male adults (MacCauley 1887: 469). He also
describes a "typical Tiger Cclan] warrior":
Tiger warrior: large head, full and marked forehead, square
face, widened and protruding jawbone giving the face a square
shape. Slightly aquiline nose, lips not full but sensuous,
black eyes, beautiful regular teeth, atrophied toe-nails
(MacCauley 1887: 469).
Concerning the physical constitution of the Seminole at this
time, an anonymous physician reports in 1840 that the Seminoles possess
a greater muscular organization than other Muskogees, and further, that
their constitutional stamina is weak allowing the body to succumb read-
ily to the influence of disease. He reports:
His maladies, general opinion to the contrary notwithstanding,
are perhaps equally complicated with those in civilized life, and
certainly more difficult to manage; whilst the issue of cases
often proves so unexpectedly fatal as to defy all established
rules of prognosis (Anon. 1840: 137-138).
Hrdlicka (1922: 54) states that the full-blood Seminole
impresses one as a "typical, ordinary Indian," reports:
The two seen were slightly deeper than medium brown in color,
with straight black hair and the general characteristics of
the oblong to slightly short-headed type of native. The stature
was moderate to fair, the body and limbs well developed.
For a 20-22-year-old male Seminole he reports a stature of 165 cm.
and a cephalic index of 81.0, with other indices and comments:
All of these measurements and indices, it will be recognized,
are quite common for a southeastern medium developed, young
adult or slightly subadult Indian.
According to Kroeber (1948: 128) a cephalic index of 80 and up in the
skull and 82 and up in the living is brachycranial; this would indicate
the above tends to brachycephaly, thus agreeing with MacCauley's
description in 1881.
Concerning constitution, J. L. Glenn, Special Commissioner to
the Indians (Annual Report: 1932) states:
The members of the Seminole tribe have been endowed with sen-
sually strong, healthful bodies. Their life in the Glades has
accustomed them to hardships. At the same time they lived
without a knowledge of sanitation or an understanding of the
causes of disease. The weak and physically unfit have been
destroyed quickly, and only the strong survived. These condi-
tions have given the Seminole of today remarkable power to recover
from injuries, and many forms of bodily poisonings. A ruptured
appendix is not fatal to a Seminole, or even the poison from the
water moccasin may be successfully disposed of by the body.
Oftentimes he eats food that kill members of the white race.
He suffers from such food but the poison is eliminated without
fatality. The physicians who treat these Indians often remark
that they have a much greater chance of recovery with them than
with white patients. (Italics mine.)
This agrees with the foregoing earlier reports in that the Seminoles
possessed well-developed bodies; the constitutional picture can be
considered a development from the 1840 report inasmuch as Glenn
specified only the strong survived.
History
Beginning about 1695-1715 with the residence of what are called
Oconee Indians in the Oconee River area of Georgia, the literature is
fairly convergent concerning the "ancestors" of the Florida Seminole
Indians. About 1716 the Oconee entered Lower Creek country and settled
temporarily on the east bank of the Chattahoochee River in Georgia
(Swanton 1952: 112) and by 1750 had entered the Alachua plain in north
central Florida.
Swanton (1922: 398) calls this the nucleus of the future
Seminole Nation. From 1773 to 1774 William Bartram made his visit
to the peninsula and applied the name Siminoles to the Muskogee
Indians of Florida. This name was later extended to include the
Hitchiti-speaking people known as the Mikasuki, reported by one
source to be properly Nikasuki or Hog-eaters (Swanton 1922: 401).
During the British Occupation of Florida the Seminoles were friendly
with the British. After the Creek War (1813-1814) many Muskogean-
speaking people (Creeks) from the Upper Creek country entered Florida
where they mixed with the Seminoles and some remnants of aboriginal
Florida Indians--the Timucua and Calusa (England 1957: 147). This
influx of Muskogean-people after the Creek War raised their number so
as to constitute a dominant element in the Florida Indian population
(Swanton 1952: 166). By the beginning of the Seminole Wars in 1817
then, we have a mixture of the Muskogean stock (mostly Creek) with the
Oconee plus mixture with some of the aboriginal inhabitants of Florida.
The attacks on the Seminoles by whites beginning about 1812-1814
ushered in the First Seminole War which lasted from 1817 to 1818.
In 1823 the Treaty of Moultrie Creek was made which limited alloweded")
to the Florida Indians reservation land within the state. However, the
white settlers, in spreading over the state, always seemed to be
frustrated by having to contend with Indians and in 1830 Congress
passed the Indian Removal Act2 to eliminate the obstacles which the
Indian lands were said to present to the expansion of the white settlers
through the Florida wilderness. The Second Seminole War was from 1835 to
1842 and in 1848 a treaty provided that those Seminoles remaining in
Florida should be allowed to possess the Everglades. Further attempts
on the part of the white settlers, the army, and the government to
remove the remainder of the Florida Seminoles to the West followed
from 1849 to 1854. There also followed, understandably, the Third
(and last) Seminole War or Uprising.
Before the last Seminole War there was estimated to be an
Indian population in Florida of two-thirds Creek, one-third Hitchiti-
speaking towns, and several bands of Yuchi (Swanton 1952: 139-140).
2The best figure for true Seminoles prior to 1800 was about
150U Indians minus females; by 1832 the count was about 4500 including
females (Hamlin 1933: 155-177). By 1847 Swanton (1952: 143) quotes the
population left in Florida as 370.
During the subsequent Civil War between the States the urgency
of the Seminole situation was somewhat attenuated.
These bellicose activities in the history of the Seminole had
their role in introducing questionable amounts of white and Negro
admixture. This admixture came about as a result of salvery. Those
Negroes who managed to free themselves joined bands of Seminoles, or
those who were captured by them and who were treated well enough,
remained in Indian life.
According to Swanton (1952: ll3) the Seminole population of
Florida was recorded for the following years as seen in Table 1.
For prior population see footnote page 5.
TABLE 1
SET iTOLE INDIAN POPULATION IN FLORIDA
1847-1914h*
Date Number
1847 370
1850 348
1893 450
1895 565
1901 358
1911 446
1913 600
1914 562
*From J. R. Swanton, The Indian
Tribes of North America, Bureau of
American Ethnology, Bulletin 145,
(Washington, U.S. Government Print-
ing Office, 1952), p. 113.
The population figures in Table 2 will be more fully analyzed
in Table 3 on pages 8 and 9.
TABLE 2
SEMINOLE
INDIAN POPULATION IN FLORIDA
192 0-1935, 1946-1949*
(estimated)
Date
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1946
1947
1948
1949
Number
454
452
462
461
467
469
503
506
516
568
572
284
578
573
751
iCompiled from the "Annual Census
of the Seminole Indian Agency," U.S.
Indian Service, 1920-1935 and 1946-1949.
--
TABLE 3
AGE, SEX, AND "BLOOD" ANALYSIS OF THE FLORIDA SEMINOLE INDIAN POPULATION FROM 1920 TO 1934
1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934
TOTAL
Full-blood
Mixed-
blood
Adults
5-18 years
5-19 years
Under 5
years
.454
M ...
F ...
M ***
F
M ...
F ...
M ...
'F .
M
F ...
F *@O
M *s
F ...
452.
.e.
0**
qeo
..e.
...
o..
* 6
**
* *
462 461 467
0..
0..
**
***
c..
.e.
*0@
.e.
*.*
* *
* *
* *
147
120
62
86
*ee
19
27
.e.
ee
159
136
52
80
19
21
... 469 503 506 516 568
ceo
*ae
*
* *
*. *
.. ... e 251 272
.. *. ..*. 257 283
** *** *** 5 8
.. ... ... 3 5
167 ... 150 152 ...
135 J...t 132 139 ...
59 ... ... .. ...
93 J...eL .. ...c
... ... 88 88 ...
S.. ... 99 107 ...
7 1.. 18 16 ...
8 J... L 19 14 ...
572 562
278 ...
280 ...
9 ...
4 ...
166 ...
148 ..
94 ...
117 ...
27 ...
19 ...
578 573
283
285
7
3
6*c
ee
c..
ace
.*.
*. *
see
c..
.eo
c..
ee
eec
*e0
*...
*...
*...
TABLE 3--Continued
1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934
,, -- ... ...... ..---
Northern
tribe
(Cow Creek) 115 113 116 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ..
Southern
Tribe
(Big Cypress)339 339 346 ... ... .. .. .. ... .. ... ... ... ...
Baby of
Unknown sex **.. ... ... ... ... .. i ... ... ...
Unknown age M ... ... .. ... ... ... ... ...* ..o 278 ... ...
F .. ... ... .*.. ...e C *** ... ... .. *..* ... 284 ..* ...
-"Compiled from the "Annual Census of the Seminole Indian Agency," U. S. Indian Service, 1920-1934.
Language
There may be some confusion as to languages spoken or tribal
names applied to the present Indians of Florida due to erratic naming
in the literature. Table 4 is a summation of Indian names and lan-
guages applied to what are today commonly called the Florida Seminoles.
TABLE 4
VARIOUS DESIGNATIONS FOR THE FLORIDA S-EMINOLE INDIANS
AND LANGUAGES ACCORDING TO SOURCE
Source
Bartram in 1773-177h
(Van Doren 1928: 367)
Recent Designation
Muskogean-speaking Hitchiti-speaking
COW CREEK MIKASUKI or BIG CYPRESS
Muscogulge-speaking Stincard-speaking
Indians STINKARDS
British Period MUSCOGEE or SEMINOLES Hitchiti-speaking
(1763-1783) according LO1ER CREEKS
to England (1957: 26)
MacCauley in 1881 TALLAHASSEE PENINSULAR RED PEOPLE
(1887: 509)
Cory Modified Creek or MIAMI
(1896: 35) Muskogee-speaking
OKEE=HOBEE
U.S. Indian Service NORTHERN TRIBE SOUTHERN TRIBE
Annual Reports
1920-1922
Note: Capitals refer to the proper names of an Indian group, and
lower-case refer to the linguistic designation.
Stirling (1936: 2), who observed in 1935, stated that about
the year 1925 the Hitchiti-speaking Mikasuki division of the Florida
Seminoles subdivided itself into two Mikasuki bands--the Big Cypress,
and the lia': i. Stirling believed this was due to the growth of the
Mikasuki population and the size of the area which they occupied.
Material Culture
Dwellings.--The typical dwelling of the Florida Seminole is
known as a chickee, and-as other "primitive" developments--embodies
some reasonable and logical architecture. The chickee is a covered
platform, sometimes as large as 12 feet by 20 feet, usually open on
four sides (although cloth netting or awnings may be used while sleep-
ing or during stormy weather), and raised about three feet above the
ground. The whole is covered with a palmetto-thatched roof supported
upon four hardwood posts. It may be located upon a raised bit of
ground or hammock (England 1957: 48). The structure is built to ob-
tain a maximum of ventilation and remain as dry as possible in a
climate with alternating hot-dry and cool-wet seasons in an open, flat,
saw-grass covered land which becomes swampy during the wet season.
Neill (1952: 34) postulates that the chickee had been borrowed by the
Seminoles from the aboriginal Florida Indians. The Indians living on
reservation grounds--as opposed to the Indians living in the Everglades
swamps--have begun to use walled and floored house-style dwellings in
some instances.
The hearth is located under a palmetto-thatched roof supported
upon four upright logs. The whole structure is known as the "cook-house,"
and is a chickee or Seminole dwelling put to specialized use (England
1957: i9). The cooking fire is laid out in spoke-wise fashion and can
be regulated by pushing in or pulling out the radially placed logs
toward or away from the burning hub. People utilizing the fire may use
the logs as benches (Nash 1930: 4).
Tools and Weapons.--Nash's inventory at Guava Camp in 1930
included a shot-gun, ax, hoe, machete, and skinning knives (1931: 9).
By 1941 it was reported that practically every Seminole camp had at
least one modern rifle, and practically every Indian owned a pocket
knife (WPA 1941: 30).
Utensils.--Wooden sofkee ladles and other wooden articles were
common. Trade items included iron kettles, iron nails, mosquito netting,
3
muslin cloth, and pedal and hand-operated sewing machines (Nash 1931: 9).
Ornamentation and Clothing.--Seminole women made beads from
shells, animal teeth, and bones (Fairlie 1928: 124).
Concerning the well-known, varicolored patchwork or applique
band skirts and dresses, a Dania bulletin is quoted (WPA 1941: 25):
The dress of the Seminole women, the equal of which for intri-
cacy of design cannot be found elsewhere in this country,
consists of a long full skirt made of hundreds of pieces of
bright colored materials sewed together in a manner to make
beautiful designs, and a cape around the shoulders extending
just below the waist. The cape usually is made of a solid
color.
3MacCauley reports in 1881 the use of palmetto and swamp cane
twined baskets and sieves, cypress-wood mortars and pestles, and cypress
dug-out canoes (1887: 517-518). Many of these items are still made
today.
In recent times the men's clothing consisted of a waist-
level "Seminole" blouse or shirt, blue denim pants or blue jeans, and
either tennis shoes, heavy shoes, or army surplus combat boots. Some
of the older Seminoles still wore the three-quarter shirt or dress-
like blouse with sleeves buttoning at the wrist, a long skirt, and
either went barefoot or wore tennis shoes (England 1957: 54). The
blouse and cape arrangement left part of the chest and abdomen exposed
so as to present a bare midriff. More recently, however, this has been
covered by lengthening the cape-at least w-en the women came into
contact with other than their own groups. Children under seven years
of age went naked in camp. Girls of seven to ten years old wore a
petticoat and boys of this age wore only a shirt (Freeman 19hh:
123-128).
In recent times, fewer strings of beads were worn by the
younger women. As an example of former styles, Nash (1931: 7) reports
that one older woman wore many strings of beads--the whole of which
weighed over twenty-five pounds--forming a pyramid from her shoulder
blades to her chin. Silver, as an item of dress, has been abandoned
(Neill 1952: 39).
Transportation.-The last dugout canoe was probably built
several years ago by an older Indian, one of the few remaining who
still know the art (Capron 1956: 829, 823-33). Recent modes of travel
included the airboat ("swamp buggy"), trucks, and automobiles.
Economy
Subsistence.--The Florida Seminole collected and used guavas,
sour oranges, bananas, blueberries, and buds of the cabbage palmetto
plant (Nash 1931: 9). Koontie root4 was an important staple. Hunted
foods included venison, birds of the Everglades (Nash 1931: 10),
oppossum, raccoon, squirrel, and rabbit (Neill 1952: 58). According
to Neill, fishing included garfish, mudfish, eels, catfish, and black
bass. Domesticated animals included swine, chickens (Nash 1931: 10),
and bees (Neill 1952: 29). The Seminoles not only kept horses and
cattle for themselves (England 1957: Sh), but were considered good
horse and cattle grazers by those Florida cattlemen employing the
Indians as range riders (page 15). Agricultural and trade items
listed by Nash (1931: 9-10) were hominy grits made into gruel
(sofkee), coffee, sugar, corn, pumpkins, cowpeas, sweet potatoes,
and sugar cane. Neill (1952: 31) describes garden plots of Irish
potatoes. Interviews with officials at the Seminole Indian Agency
at Dania, Florida and Indian informants in 1957 indicated that besides
such trade items as coffee, sugar, and salt, other items normally
home-grown-such as vegetables, or normally homemade-such as bread,
may from time to time be purchased. The extent of this practice varies
according to the proximity of the Indian camp to stores, among other
factors. Since salt will be considered as a factor in certain con-
ditions (page 68), it might be noted that Nash commented on a
"noticiable absence of salt." This could be due to either a deliberate
1acCauley reports in 1881 the use of Koontie (Coontie) roots.
Koontie is wild cassava, of the genus Manihot (Manioc).
choice in diet or just low provisions at the time according to the
description:
There was a noticeable absence of salt in their dishes, and their
stock of sugar was nearly exhausted (1931: 9).
See footnote for historical reference to salt in the Seminole diet.5
A typical meal was given by Nash (1931: 9) as consisting of a
pot of meat stew, a pan of biscuits fried in grease, and bread (commer-
cial) used as gravy mops. Milk, even for children, was practically
never used (Freeman 19h4: 123). Carbonated soft drinks, commercial
candies, and sweets represented part of the daily diet, as was learned
both by observation of the author and interviews at the Seminole Indian
Agency and camp at Dania.
Tribal Patterns.--The Cow Creeks inhabited mainly the northern
part of Florida and the Mikasuki mainly the southern part (MacCauley
1887: 509). The former were traditionally agricultural people, and the
latter were hunting people (Peithmann 1956: 47). Boyd (1951: 271-273)
emphasized the agricultural and hunting patterns of the Seminoles.
MacCauley reported agricultural and pastoral economies (1887: 516).
Occupations for Income.-Recent occupations to supplement
income included activities associated with exhibitions and sales
connected with the tourist trade, range riding, field work as har-
vesters, county and state road department workers, plus other employ-
ment in sawmills, construction, etc. (Neill 1952: 29).
Bartram reports in 1773-1774 that he ate barbecued ribs of
bullocks- and stewed tripe soup seasoned with salt and aromatic herbs
(Van Doren 1928: 168).
Sex Division of Labor.--The duties of the brave included pro-
viding for, and defense of the family, training of the younger boys,
heavy work, and politics (Neill 1952: 34). Specifically, the males
cut down trees; built houses; planted the fields; built canoes; made,
push-poles, bows and arrows; mended nets; cleaned weapons; and hunted
and fished (Fairlie 1928: 122).
The squaw's duties included housework, cooking, care of younger
children, and domestic affairs (Neill 1952: 34). Specifically, they
made and mended clothes, beadwork, and baskets; cleaned and dressed
skins and furs; assisted in house-building; dug the koontie root and
made starch from it; weeded the garden; sold the eggs and chickens;
told stories to the children, and instructed the younger ones; kept
their own money and bought what they wanted (Fairlie 1928: 123-12W)
The Seminole children hunted for rabbits, squirrels, bee hives,
wood, eggs, flowers; pushed up the fire logs; pushed canoes; cleaned
the houses and canoes; kept birds from the corn and rabbits from the
garden (Fairlie 1928: 125-126).
Sex and Age Status.-The Seminole woman, due to the matri-
lineal and matriarchal organization, had a status providing some
consideration from the male members. The women were not merely slaves
(WPA 19h1: 68). They kept their own money-earned through sales of
products and crafts-and bought what they wanted (page 14).
Elderly members of the group retained their property, had a
place within the group if they did not wish to live alone, were allowed
to work at tasks in the community, and generally belonged fully to the
life around them (~VPA 1941: 69).
Property.--Harrison (1924: 21) states that real property
continued in tribal ownership, and all household goods remained the
property of the women (1924: 21-22). Personal belongings apparently
belonged to the owners and were respected as such (England 1957: 24).
Social Organization
In 1939 the Mikasuki band consisted of nine animal-named clans
(except two) grouped into four phratries. The clans represented an
uncle-nephew relationship (Greenlee 1952: 25-31). In 1941 the Cow
Creek band was divided into clans, the clans into camps, and the camps
subdivided into extended matrilocal and matrilineal nuclear families.
Four of the clans were totemic; one was not (Spoehr 1941: 10-15).
Political Organization and Administration
There were three recognized councils according to Neill
(1952: 52): the Cow Creek, the Dania, and the Mikasuki including the
Big Cypress and the Tamiami Trail groups. The councils met and held
court during the annual Green Corn Dance (page 19). Neill(1952: 42)
believes that the last death penalty decreed by a council and carried
out by a Seminole appointed as executioner was in 1938.
Science
Calendar.--Cory states that following the Creek tradition, the
Seminoles began their year with the Green Corn Dance. This was in
August when the Creeks inhabited Alabama and Georgia. The Green Corn
Dance took place earlier in Florida, but Cory did not think that this
would change the calendar which he gives as follows (1696: 20):
August . Big Ripening Moon
September . Little Ripening Moon
October . Big Chestnut Moon
November .... .Falling Leaf Moon
December . Big Winter Moon
January .. .. Little Winter Moon
(Winter Moon's Young Brother)
February . Windy Moon
March . Little Spring Moon
April . Big Spring Moon
May . ... .Mulberry Moon
June . Blackberry Moon
July . Little Ripening Moon
Medicine and Healing.--Women could practice healing, but only
men could become medicine men (Peithmann 1956: 83). Medicinals included
sweet bay leaves, cedar leaves, willow, snakeroot, and tobacco (England
1957: 66). Incantations, blood-letting, and trances were used therapeu-
tically (Neill 1952: 52).
Basis of Shamanistic Practice, and Theory of Illness.--The
medicine man believed in the central forces of nature, the dual nature
of the soul, and that curative efforts depended upon making the disease
yield to his personal efforts. Disease was associated with dreams and
death in that all three represented various degrees of wandering of one
of the patient's souls (Greenlee 194h: 317). That is, in a dream the
soul returned normally by the end of the dream, in sickness it had to be
coaxed back by the medicine man, and in death it was considered to have
gone too far (west) to be retrieved.
Modern Medicine.--Recourse to the scientifically trained
physician was authorized by the tribal medicine men in 1922 (U.S.
Indian Service Annual Report 1922).
Religion
The Seminole religion centered about a dualistic concept of
two great spirits, the God of Love and the God of Vengeance. The first
was responsible for all that was beautiful and beneficient to man, and
the second was responsible for demons and calamity (WPA 1941: il).
Simple acts of sacrifice were made for the success of the hunt.
If any deer were killed in or near the camp, a small bit of the flesh
was burned before the animal was stewed. (This could be of some totemic
significance).
The "Sin Offering of the Hunt" was made by cremating on the spot
the first deer killed each season. This was believed to secure recovery
for any ailing member of the hunter's family as well as propitiation for
his sins.
The most important religious and legal (page 17) ceremony was
the Green Corn Dance or Busk or Physic Dance. It was a dance of thanks-
giving held when the corn was ripe (page 17), usually in late summer,
and might last three, four, or five days terminating in a feast (WPA
1941: hl). The new corn could not be eaten until the end of the cere-
mony (Fairlie 1928: 69). The drinking of the purgative Black Drink
was an integral part of the ceremony. The three councils (page 17)
held their own Dance in three localities successively so that any
Seminole might attend more than one of the Dances (WVPA 1941: 62).
The Black Drink is an emetic tea made from the leaves of the
cassina shrub which grows in Georgia, South Carolina, and northern
Florida. The leaves are boiled and allowed to ferment before use
according to Cory (1896: 19).
Although the Dance might be omitted several times, it was believed the
Seminole "medicine" would die and all of the Seminoles would perish were
the Dance omitted four successive years (Capron 1956: 834).
Life Cycle
Childbearing and Infancy.--The woman had to remain in the "baby
house" or special hut four days, attended by an Indian midwife or older
clanswoman. Food was especially prepared and served to the woman.
After the four-day seclusion the mother would return to the family
dwelling, but had to prepare and eat her food apart from the family for
the next four months (Peithmann 1956: 90).
The very young were carefully attended by the mother, and to the
older children were delegated the care of the younger siblings no longer
requiring the direct care of the mother (Freeman 19i4: 123).
Education.--The concept that one is stronger than another was
avoided by the mother's not inflicting punishment upon her children, but
leaving disciplinary measures to the tribal community as a whole (WPA
1941: VI). Tribal welfare was of primary consideration (Peithmann
1956: 50), stressing cooperation through non-competition and non-
rivalry (England 1957: 62). Truth and honesty were considered the
highest virtues (Peithmann 1956: 88).
By 1951, Florida Seminole children were attending public schools
and government operated schools (England 1957: 66).
Adulthood.--At the age of twelve years a girl was given a string
of beads, indicating she was then an adult. Also at the age of twelve,
a boy was considered a man (Peithmann 1956: 88).
Among the Big Cypress Seminoles, the older unmarried girls slept
in a separate chickee, as did the older bachelors (Greenlee 1952: 25-31).
Unmarried sons lived with their mother's clansmen (England 1957: 59).
Marriage.--England writes that the general rule was clan exogamy,
and after marriage a matrilocal residence was established. Spoehr's
study of the Cow Creek in 1941 indicated extended matrilocal and matri-
lineal nuclear families (1941: 10-15). Traditionally, duogamy existed,
and as late as 1945 an older Seminole was known to have had two wives
(England 1957: 58).
Mixed Indian-white marriages were infrequent (Neill 1952: 51).
Iixed Indian-Negro marriages were allowed during the period of the
Seminole War (up to 1842) according to Boyd (1951; 22-23), but a general
council of the Cow Creek Seminoles and Mikasuki in 1894 decreed that
no more mixed marriages of Seminoles with persons of all-Negro or
all-white racial stock would be permitted (England 1957: 167). The
examination of the population figures (pages 8 and 9) reveals a very
low mixed-bloods among the full-bloods.
In addition to the above restrictions as to race, .a man was
forbidden to marry a woman of his father's clan. This last restriction
was removed by 1956 (Peithmann 1956: 70). There were linked-clan
restrictions; that is, where clans were of an uncle-nephew relationship,
they were considered the same clan.
Clan approval was required in addition to the groom having to
consult the girl's-father. The groom's female relatives supplied the
bedding for the new chickee, and the groom furnished blankets, utensils,
beads, and gave money to the bride's clan. The bride's relatives
made the groom a new shirt. The marriage was performed during the next
Green Corn Dance (England 1957: 58). A matrilocal residence was fol-
lowed by the establishment of a neo-local residence when the couple
desired (Peithmann 1956: 87). Monogamous unions determined largely by
choice (with due regard to taboos) seemed the rule. In 1924 the first
church wedding occurred (Neill 1952: 51).
Divorce and Remarriage.--Nash quotes Spencer as believing the
tribal council to have had the final word in divorce and that there was
no ceremony; the husband leaves, and the wife and children revert back
to her group (1931: 26). Remarriage for widower and widow was allowed
after the proper ceremonies at the annual Green Corn Dance (Peithmann
1956: 90).
Death.--Funeral customs included the lighting of fires at the
grave of the deceased for three consecutive nights to ward off evil
spirits. On the fourth day the rites ended with the extinguishing
of the fires (England 1957: 145). England reports that by 1951 the
customary practice of making burial offerings had been abandoned by
the Cow Creeks, althoughthe Mikasuki still retained the practice
(1957: 65). Some cemeteries have been established for the Seminoles
by the U.S. government (Neill 1952: h3).
A widow was required to mourn for four months. She wore her
hair disheveled (the customary way was a bun or built up over a fan-like
template attached to the head, and straight down for younger girls),
removed her bead necklaces and ate alone. A widower was also required
to mourn four months (England 1957: 65).
The Seminole believed in the dual nature of the soul (page 19)
which is freed after death, in ghosts of the dead, and in an after-
life. That is, ghosts may be the inimical souls of the departed and
are to be appeased, but are best avoided whenever possible (WPA 1941: 42).
Social Routine
There was an absence of regular mealtime. Food was kept hot dur-
ing the day, and along with sofkee (either hominy gruel or soup) and
coffee, was available for use when desired by individual members of the
family (Nash 1931: 9-10). The sofkee spoon (or wooden ladle) was used
communally to dip from the sofkee pot, and to drink from, constituting
a vehicle of oral infection (Nash 1932: 32).
As regards personal hygiene, "all adult Indians were very par-
ticular about their appearance," and every night the young men washed
and changed clothing (WPA 1941: 27). As seen from hospital admission
notes from 19h5 to 1949, the admitting physicians commented upon the
unwashed appearance of many of the children and infants brought into
the hospital.
Social gatherings were instigated and carried out during the
course of such events as marriages and feasts. The camp or cooking
fire was a center for social intercourse (Fairlie 1928: 35). The Green
Corn Dance was the occasion for visiting. The chickee maintained for
visiting clansmen provided-in addition to hospitality--yet another
source of social activity (Greenlee 1952: 25-31).
Popular games with young Seminoles included stick-ball and
Chinese checkers (Neill 1952: 52); toy dolls and wagons were playthings
(Fairlie 1928: 126).
The songs and chants classified in 1933 by Densmore (1933:
93-96) included women's songs, lullabies, group chants, medicine chants,
children's songs to sing with games, pleasure songs, Green Corn Dance
songs, and Hunting Dance songs.
Instruments included rattles (Densmore 1933: 93-98), water-drums,
tom-toms, and tin-can rattles (Capron 1956: 831). The cane flute,
possibly used at one time, has disappeared (Neill 1952: 42).
Stories of origin are told for the creation and appearance upon
the earth of the Indians, whites, and Negroes. There are also legends
of origin for plants, animals, and celestial bodies (Fairlie 1928: 61,
73, 87, 109).
Summary of Background and General Culture
It would seem that if there were any "pure" Seminoles in
Florida, it would have only been recently that they started to be a
homogeneous group which could be designated by a single name meaning-
more than just historical or geographical similarity. When Indian
groups began to migrate into Florida from the North about the end of
the 17th century contact was made with the aboriginal Florida Indians
as well as with white Europeans and escaped Negro slaves (and later
freedmen). It is reasonable to assume that some time was necessary
to allow for the formation of a homogeneous ethnic composition which
might be called "pure." However, a certain degree of closeness and
similarity can be expected because of tribal restrictions against
mixed marriages with all-white or all-Negro persons, the close-mkit
social organization, and the isolated location of Seminole communities
and family dwelling areas throughout the Everglades hinterland.
Historically, the two main Seminole groups in Florida were
divided into agricultural, and hunting, and sometimes pastoral peoples.
Present economy also depends upon daily employment of males outside
of the tribe. Almost all Seminoles do some gardening, only some areas
provide sufficient hunting opportunities, and pastoralism is practised
insofar as government-sponsored herds are kept. Much store-trade
supplies many items of today's Indian way of life.
The purpose of this chapter was to present a balanced picture
of the Florida Seminole Indian through a description of his ethnography,
including a history of his origin and gradually increasing post-
deportation (after 18h7) population.
CHAPTER II
RESUI L OF THE HEALTH PICTURE: NARRATIVE
General
An attempt is made in this section to show the yearly increase
of health problems, or the awareness of them by administrators and
Indians, for the period 1919 to 193h as covered by the Seminole Indian
Agency Annual Reports (U.S. Indian Service) for those years. First
appearances of conditions will be noted, and official comments concern-
ing the health situation will be quoted where applicable. It should be
noted that the first reported appearance of a condition may be the
first awareness of an already existing one. There are some cases,
however, where a new condition has appeared. In general, the Florida
Seminole shows a susceptibility not only to health hazards concomitant
with his way of life, but also to any infection to which he is exposed.
To 1919
Although the annual records at the Seminole Indian Agency at
Dania cover only the fiscal years 1919 to 1935, and the first reported
case of tuberculosis was on the 1928 list reported cases, Nash (1931:
30) relayed information told to him of three deaths (two male and one
female) about 1902 or 1903 due to tuberculosis.
Nash also reported that the Florida State Board of Health
treated 15 cases of hookworm among the Seminole Indians in 1913.
1920
The report for this year states that although a number of
Seminoles died of Influenza during the last two years, the percentage
was no greater than among white people.
Hookworm was given as the most prevalent condition. Decayed
teeth were also very prevalent. It was found that the upper incisors
were most frequently attacked.
Dr. O. S. Phillips, Special Physician, U.S. Indian Service,
stated in his Health and Sanitary Survey:
The Seminole suffers less from the ravages of disease and
probably enjoys better health than any other tribe of Indians
I have visited.
1921
Besides the reported cases of hookworm, it was believed that
there were many others. Decayed teeth were prevalent, but no typical
"Hutchinson's teeth" observed.
Many of the older Seminoles were reported suffering from
kidney trouble believed to be caused by an unbalanced diet of excess
meat. A program of re-education on proper diet was found to benefit
the older generation.
It seemed to be the first year of contact with the hospital
for the Seminole.
Dr. R. E. L. Newberne, Chief Medical Supervisor, states:
Most healthy tribe in the United States said free from
tuberculosis, but assertion too good to accept without question.
Also said that venereal disease is unknown among them. This I
can accept as a fact.
He concluded that the Seminole health was as good as the white health
in the same climate.
1922
Due to the barefoot habits of the Florida Indian, many younger
Indians had hookworm.
Mention was made of acute kidney trouble with several resultant
deaths in many older Indians.
It was believed that the considerable amount of sickness over
the last year was due to an unbalanced diet of too much meat caused by
a total crop loss.
There wasto be an increase expected in the number of medical
cases because the tribal medicine men had authorized the white
physician's treatment.7
1923
Although there was a gradual increase of sickness believed due
to the crop failure two years ago, it was found that the general health
compared favorably vrith the past two years.
The first reported case of venereal disease among the Florida
Seminoles recorded one case of syphilis.
1924
The general health was reported falling. The most prevalent
Aside from any education or indoctrination of the Seminole by
the whites, is it possible that the medicine men had decided that as
long as the white man was bringing new, unknown conditions into the
hitherto closed cosmos of the Indian, they, the medicine men, would be
authorized by their tribal spirits to borrow alien techniques as
"medicine" against what were alien troubles to the Indianr
conditions were malaria, hookworm and anemia. The high malaria
incidence was believed due to state drainage operations which uncovered
vast areas of muck-lands, thereby an increase in mosquitoes.
1925
No report this year.
1926
A camp for sick and indigent Indians was established at Dania
in Broward County.
Gonorrhea (four cases) appeared for the first time. One case
of syphilis was reported in the white wife of an Indian.
Three cases of alopecia were seen.9
This prevalence of malaria is in contradiction to Greenlee,
(194h: 37) who stated that prior to 1932 no malaria existed among the
Seminoles. He believed that the employment of Georgia Negroes in
Everglades' sawmills was responsible for the introduction of malaria
among the Florida Seminole. Nash (1931: 20) reported:
Dr. Claxton (who made a survey in 1930 for the Florida State
Board of Health) points out that malaria exists at Okeechobee
and Keenansville, and that wherever there is a sawmill employing
colored hands there is almost certain to be a focus of infection.
This would seem to indicate that although the sawmills can be impli-
cated due to substantiation by both Greenlee and Claxton, Greenlee's
figures might be somewhat late to account for the many cases of
malaria in 192h.
9
Holder (1882: 42) in reporting conditions from among the
Crow Indians stated:
Bald heads are unknown, even though syphilis with attendant
alopecia prevails.
This alopecia among the Seminoles corresponds chronologically to the
appearance of venereal infection among them during the past several
years.
1927
Aside from noting that anemia, malaria and influenza led the
list, it was stated that due to the effects of the September 18, 1926,
10
hurricane the annual report's correctness was impossible.
1928
The general health was reported not good due to adverse weather
and influenza epidemic among the Big Cypress in December 192-7. -There
was one death. The first smallpox case was reported and the first
official tuberculosis case was reported.
1929
There were two epidemics of "Spanish" influenza during the last
year; prompt hospitalization resulted in only one death.
The general health was believed to be gradually weakening due
to the excess use of poison intoxicants.
It was pointed out that due to the excess use of poor grade
intoxicants during pregnancy by expectant mothers, arrested mental and
physical development was being shown in babies born at this time.
Infant mortality had been reduced to the level of the white
population due to the Indian's acceptance of the white physician
at childbirth.
It was realized that (postulated that) many of the diseases
among the Seminoles were due to the bad dental condition in practically
all of the Indians.
1One of Florida's worst storms. The highest velocity, sustained
for five minutes, was 123 mph, with the maximum velocity reaching 132 mph.
There was 75 lbs./sq. ft. wind pressure. This full hurricane caused
$75,000,000 damage.
1930
There were 14 reported cases of gonorrhea. Appropriations
were recommended to combat this disease "before it gets too great a
start among these people."
Nash (1931: 17) quoted Dr. Claxton's findings in 1930 as:
Everyone has pyorrhea, even children around 8 years of age.
The women-after 20 years of age begin to lose their teeth;
in fact, beginning decay was marked at 10 and 12 years. The
teeth gradually rot off and the roots are eventually pulled
out. Toothache is common. The fact that these people never
drink milk or eat green vegetables would account for the
early tooth decay. Toothbrushes are entirely unknown.
Also according to Nash, Dr. Claxton found many Indian children
"so infested (with hookworm) that their hearts showed valvular leaks."
And further, "he found it impractical to order hookworm treatment in
the camps because the children could not be trusted to refrain from
foods during the necessary period."
1931
The general health was weakening. The "most urgent need" was
a health nurse; considerable obstacles were foreseen for her in the
course of her work with the Indians.
1932
The greatest threat to Seminole health as of this time was
seen in the excess use of alcohol, venereal disease, and the intestinal
disorders 11
lIt may be of interest to note that Von Martius, reporting
upon the Brazilian Indians in 1844, attributed the causes for the
greatest ills among the Indians to smallpox, measles, syphilis, and
the abuse of alcohol (aguardente).
J. L. Glenn, Special Commissioner to the Indians, reported:
Through their increased contact with the white people in recent
years, the Seminole is meeting disease.conditions against which
he has no great resistance. The two largest dangers threaten-
ing his health are ills growing out of intemperance in the use
of alcohol and the venereal diseases.
He gave intestinal disorders the third place. This included hookworm,
dysentery caused by unsanitary foods, and serious constipation caused
in many cases, he believed, by lack ofa balanced diet. The Seminole
children did not drink milk-and suffered from malnutrition.
The prevalence of rheumatism, previously as well as this year,
was thought due to exposure to the wet condition of the Everglades.
1933
The first case of a gonorrheal infection of the eye of an
Indian child was reported.
1934
It was stated that the death rate was slightly less than double
that of the white population. It was also noted that approximately
one-third of the Indian population "suffered some form of throat or
lung disease."
There were 62 cases of measles and 26 cases of whooping cough
treated in 1934.12
12
Holder (1892: 42) reports from among the western Indians:
Epidemics of whooping cough have usually followed measles, as in
white communities, and have been more fatal in about the same
degree as measles.
and further:
This disease, so trivial under favorable hygienic conditions
among whites, finds in the Indian a most vulnerable pulmonary
Summary of the Narrative Health Picture
The reports for the period 1919 to 1934 seem to indicate
almost a yearly progressive deterioration of Seminole health. Although
some conditions may have resulted from direct contact with a new and
hitherto foreign influence (see footnote, page 29, on malaria and Negro
workers), other conditions may have appeared simply because of an
awareness on the part of administrators or the Indians themselves,
leading to better reporting thereafter. The year 1921 was the first
year of contact of the Florida Seminole with hospital care, and in 1922
the tribal medicine men authorized white physicians and their treatment.
It would then take several years before the real status quo of the
"hinterland" could become apparent, since according to a comment in
the 1921 population figures, the total 452 Seminoles recorded that
year "are scattered over 9,000 square miles with practically no white
population nor roads." (U.S. Indian Service, 192L)
The diseases and conditions given as chronic ailments, or
reported consistently enough to be considered concomitant with the
Seminole mode of living, included hookworm, anemia, malaria, oral
infections and decayed teeth, rheumatism, and intestinal disorders.
system, and meeting little resistance there, by disabling that
leg or the vital tripod causes many deaths. (Italics mine.)
The 1924 Annual Reports stated that the Indian was kept free
from the state-wide measles epidemic; many cases.of measles were
reported among the Indians, however, during the second outbreak in
1934. There seemed to be an increase of pulmonary and respiratory
infections among the Indians concomitant with the second measles
outbreak. Whooping cough entered the area (community) after the first
measles epidemic, and simultaneously with the second. Thus, we might
find some agreement of the Seminole situation with Holder's findings.
34
The influenza epidemics following the First World War had
their toll among the Florida Seminoles as well as among other groups.
The Seminoles also suffered a measles epidemic in 1934.
Based upon this resume, it seems that the Florida Seminole
was susceptible to any health hazard to which he was esposed.
CHAPTER III
RESUME OF THE HEALTH PICTURE: STATISTICAL
General
The following figures in Table 5 were taken from the Seminole
Indian Agency Annual Reports (U.S. Indian Service) for the years 1920
to 1935, and compiled from hospital records for the years 1966 to 1949.
Although the figures found may have been statistically unreliable in
some instances, it should be noted that these figures may be useful in
qualitatively recognizing the Seminole's susceptibility to various
diseases and conditions.
TABLE 5
NUMBER OF CASES OF REPORTED CONDITIONS FOR
THE FISCAL YEARS 1920 to 1935*, 1946 to 1949**
Conditions Years 1920-1935 Years 1946-49
20 21 22 23 24 25
26 27 28 29
30 31 32
33 34 35
46-47 48 49
CIRCULATORY
Anemia
Anemia, pernicious
Aortic insuf-
ficiency
Arteriosclerosis
Coronary Occlusion
Enlarged heart
Erythroblastosis
foetalis
Heart disease
Heart disease,
congenital
Leukemia, myelo-
genous, chronic
Mitral disease
Murmur, systolic,
mitral
1 22 ..
* o *
9. 99
99 99
S* &4 1 **
1 3 ..
99 99 99 @9 99 99
9. 59 99 99 99 99
99 99 99 99 '1 ..
99 99 99 99 99 99
35 22 7 1
*0 00 *0 00
9** ** .9 .
** ** ** **
99 .. *. 2
** ** ** **
** ** ** **
@@ @@ @@ 80
@@ @@ee 2
3 8 ..
** .. *
3 4 ..
*6 ** *
09 09 99
9. 99 9.
SO 990
S10 12 2
** **. **
. .. .. 2
** ** 00
99 99 99 99
99 99 99 99
99 99 99 99
8 8
.. 1
99 99
99 09
09 .9
99 99
99 99
1 ,
* Compiled from the "Annual Reports of the Seminole Indian Agency," U. S. Indian Service, 1920-1935.
3* Compiled from individual case histories, Jackson Memorial Hospital, Miami, Florida, 1946-49.
-
TABLE 5--Continued
Conditions Years 1920-1935. Years 1946-49
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
46-47 48 49
Stenosis, aortic
Stenosis, mitral
Valvular disease
CELLULAR AND
NEOPLASMS
Cancer
Carcinoma,
pulmonary
Carcinoma, bladder
Carcinometastasis,
abdominal
Tumor
Tumor, kidney
Tumor, ovarian
Tumor, removal
NUTRITIONAL
Malnutrition
Pellagra
01 .
1.o
00 .0
00 00
00 00
0. .. 0* 1 1 .. 1 1
. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..*
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
00 00
00 00
00 00
1
00 00
*0 ** 0 00, ** *00 00 o
00 00
00 00
1 .
00 00
00 00
0 0 00 *0 00
00 to 00* 00 0
.. .. .. ....
.. .. .. .. ..
00 00
GALL-BLADDER
Cholecystitis
Gallstones
40 *a *0 00 o 00 00 00 0a 0 00 0 00 00 0 *
00 00
00 00
00 00
00 00 *
00 0 *
00 00 0*
.. @@ ..
.. .. .,
to 00
2 ..
00 *o
00 0
.. ..
5
.00
0 0 *
00 *0
.. ..
.@ ..
TABLE 5--Continued
Conditions Years 1920-1935 Years 1946-49
,, --,.-
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
32 33 34 35
46-47 48 49
JOINTS, RHEUMA-
TOID, MUSCULAR
Arthritis
Atrophy, muscular
Lumbago
Myalgia
Rheumatism
Tetanus
METABOLIC
Acidosis
Acidosis, diabetic
Diabetes
Dehydration
General debility
LIVER
Hepatitis, acute
Hepatitis,
catarrhal
Jaundice
Liver, patholo-
gical
.0 1
04 60
.. 1
.. .
8 23
Cb 00
00 *0
*e 0*
o o0
** 0* ** **. ..* 2
ce co 6
CC CS C*
.. 1 2
.. 1 ..
1 .. 5
.. 1
24 28 29
.. .. 1
@. CC Co
*. Ce C
*. CC 0 0
*C CC C S
. .* *o .O *
,ee o
or oo
* oe
1 ..
:2 ..
13
@ID
or ro
re r@
*. o0. *Co o *S 0a ** C* CC *0 .0 0 @0 .
CC CC C* C. C. *C CC C. C
.. ,, ft* ft. ** ** ft. ..
* *. 0 &
Ce @0
Ce C.
-- -- --- -- -------
1 *
TABLE 5--Continued
Conditions Years 1920-1935 Years 1946-49
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32
33 34 35
46-47 48 49
GLANDULAR
Adenitis
Enlarged gland
Lympho-adenopathy
NERVOUS
Fits
Fright
Insomnia
Nervousness
Neuralgia
Neuritis
Paralysis
St. Vitus Dance
EXCRETORY, G-U,
REPRODUCTIVE
Bright's disease
Calculi, renal
Calculi, urethal
Constipation
Cystitis
Diarrhea
Dysentery
Dysentery,
lagrippal
Fistula, rectal
*0
00
00
00
00
00
00
*0 0
*0 *
00 0
*0 0
0* 0
*0 00
0s 00
.. 7
g* 4 **
*, 00 00
1 1 00 00 00
00 *0 @0 1 0 0
00 ** 00 *0 go
00 0. 00 ** 00
s 0 00 00 0 *
1 1 .. 3 3
. 1 .0 3 30
*. 2 o* go 0
** '** ** @* @
*0 *0 *0 00 00
00 00 90 00 00
2 g** 00 00 0
8 3 .. 6 3
.. 8 ** 6 .0
00 00 00 00 00
* a 0 *
0 '00 so
1 2 3
.. 1 1
.. 1 ..
00 0
* 1 *
.. .
00r
1 ..
*. *. 1
.. 4 8
27 2 3
0* 00 0
00 00 00
0* 00
2 .
3 ,*
"2 ..
2 ..
2 ..
as g0
*. 0 0
11 ..
5 6
..4
g* *0
.. 4
00 00
* 00
*. **
00 00
.. 13
.. 7
. 34
3 ,6
** 0** '**
o. 00 0 *0
66 O @@ @@
- -- --
I :; ` ~;
TABLE 5--Continued
Conditions Years 1920-1935 Years 1946-49
20 21 22 23 24 25 26
27 28 29 30 31: 32 33 34 35
46-47 48
G-C Infection
G-U Infection
Hyperplasia,
prostrate
Hemorrhoids
Ischio-rectal
disease
Kidney trouble
Nephritis
Nephritis, glomu-
lar, chronic
Pathological
bladder
Pyelitis
Soft chancre
Sterile
Stricture
Syphilis
Urethritis
RESPIRATORY
Adenoids
Asthma
Bronchitis
Bronchopneumonia
Cold
Coryza, acute
*. 2 .
o oe @
0* 00 06 00 06 *6
60 00 60 00 00 00
1 .1 .
*. 1 *.
S0 @ 0 00* go
. .. .
00 1 *
3 2 ..
3 .. ..
00 00
06 00
.. 1 21 15 15 16 6 9
00 *0 0 00 00 go *0 0
** 60 00 00 0* 0. 00 00
@@ @@ @@ @@ @@ @@ @@
.. 1
of 1
2 .
@@ ** *m e o*
S0 06 of 00 00 @@ 0 00 00@
00 0 0 0 so 00
.. 2 0. .. 9 7
06 00 00 0 o .6 00
1 1 2 1 .. 2
*. 2 *. .. .. 0.
** ** .. .. 99 .. .0 *. *
** **0 ** 0* 0* 0** 00 00
.. 2 3 10 7 9 11 4
2 9 ** 2 .. .. 86 ..
g6 00 .0 ** 3 g* o0 *0 **
0 *0
2 ./
.. 4 3
12 1 ..
00 00 00
*@ *
* *
r- --~unrr*rr*lisnr. I L ..L.-
TABLE 5-Continued
Conditions Years 1920-1935 Years 1946-49
20 21 22 '23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
46-47 48 49
Croup
Diptheria
Empyremia
Infection,
pulmonary
Infection, upper
respiratory
Influenza
Naso-phrygitis
Pleurisy
Pharyngitis
Pneumonia, uncl.
Pneumonia, lobar
Pneumonia, pos-
sible
Pneumonia, virus
Pneumonitis
Sinus, supperating
"Strep" throat
Throat trouble
Tonsilitis
Tuberculosis
SENSORY
Skin
Abcess
Athlete's foot
00 99
9* 00
00 00
.. ..0 .. .0 2
00 09 1 00 09 90
.. .. *. .. .. **
0 *0 90 b *0 00 4 90
28 ..
09 0
09 90
o.. 8 .. 12 26
*0 00 0 09 *0 00
1 2 .. .. 2 ..
. .. .. .. .. ..
00 00 00
so .60 .. .. .
o ** ** ** **00
*0 00 00 00 00 0 *
** 1 900 00 006 *
00 00 00 00 00 00
09 90 1 00 00 09
0 9O0 90 00 ..0 0
s. 0 o. 2 1 to 2 1
so to 00 00 09 *9 94 to
1 .. 00 00 00
34 36 18 24 1
1 21 1 ....
34 36 18 24 1.
9. 0. o. .** 9
1 90 00 1 .9
1 1 1 2. ..
** ** L ** **
.. 1 *..
92 43 76
0.. 1
.. 8 3
** *o* **
*0 00 0
00 5 00
.. 12 8
2 3 4
.. 4 12
S4 99 0
.3 1
.. 1
.. 1
7 2
1 ..
.. 2
1 ..
1. 1
,0* 1
72
5 ..
1 ..
TABLE 5--Continued
Conditions Years 1920-1935 Years 1946-49
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
46-47 48 49
Carbuncle,
Dermatitis
Der ma.titis,
fungus
Eczyma
Furunculosis,
furuncle, boils
Impetigo
Itch, ground
Psoriasis
Ringworm
Scabies
Skin eruption,
unclass.
Uticaria
Vincent's angina
Visual
Blindness
Cataract
Conjunctivitis
Conjunctivitis,
granular
Eye strain
Ptergium
Ulcer, eye
Other
0 00 00 40 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 3
** 1 00* *0* *0 00 00 0* *0 ** 3 ** ** ** **
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00. .0 0 .. 1 .. .00 00. 6 2 2 .. .. 5 ..
00 o00 0 00 ** 00 00 o 00 00 2 00 00 00 0o
0. o 0 0 0 00 ** .0 **. 0 .0 *0 1 04 2 1 0*
00 00 0o 00 00 00 ** *o 00 2 .o .o *0 4 *.
*0 .* *. 2 ** .. 1 s0 *. ** 00 00 0* 00
00** 00 00 1 ** 00 0* 1 .1 00 1 0* **0 00 0
00 00 00 00 00 00 o0 00 00 0 .0 3 00 00 00**
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 1 00 0o 00 00 090 0 00
*00* 00 00** 00 00 00 ** 1 00** ** 00 00 00
0 0 00 00** ** 0 00 0** ** ** **00 00 0 **
00* ** ** ** ** ** 0 00 00 00 1 1 ** ** ** **
0** ** ** ** ** 1 ** 0** ** 1 *00 00 0 **
* 00 00* 0** 00 00* **0 00 **0 00* 00 00**
** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** s* ** ** ** ** ** **
00 00 00 00 00 o 00 0 0 00 0 00 0 00 00 1 00
0* ** *0 0** 00 00 00 0** 0 @ 00 00 00 *0 0*
00.. 00 1 0. 00 1 ** 1 1 1 3 *0 4 *. 00
00 00 10
00 00
00 00
00 3.
00 04
00 00
00 04
00 00
00 ,0
00 90
00 40
1 00
00 1
00 *0
09 00
*0 1
09 00
I -
: -I -0 ---r 00' I P- '-1 e I
TABLE 5--Continued
Conditions Years 1920-1935 Years 1946-49
0 2 21 22 23 24 25
8 29zy 30
46-47 4U 49
Dental
Bad teeth
Extraction
Marasmus dentri-
tion
Other
Other
Ear, catarrhal
Ear, ulcerated
Otitis media
Mouth, infected
Pyorrhea
Stomatitis
GYNECOLOGICAL AND
OBSTETRICAL
Abortion, uncl.
Abortion, incom-
plete
Abortion, spon-
taneous
Childbirth
Complications of
pregnancy
Conization
Cystocele and
rectocele
1 .*
00 0
44 00 00 3
1 ** **
44 00 40 00 1. **
04 44 90 00 40 00
00 00
.. 6
r .1
3 1
00 00 00
04 00 *0
.. .. .. .. ,, ,.
.. .. .. .. .. ..
I00 00 0
* 0 00 0 *
.. .. ..
04 00
00 00
4. 00
90 90
00 44
00 40
0* 00 ** 0 00* 40 4 0 0 0* 04 40 *0 0 ..* 2
0* *I* *04 00 40 @* 0 00 s0 40 *0 0* 00 so @*
002 2 4.
22 4
* e 00
. @
.. ..
1
. 10
3 1 3 1 9" .. ..* .
0 0. *0. 0 ** 00. ** 97
'~ '9.
00 00
40 00
90 40
4* ** **
4 .. ..
0* 0* ** ** *0 0 ** ** *0 ** o 0 00 ** *0*
- ~- ---~~~
26o z7
1 3 32 33 34 35
TABLE 5--Continued
Years 1920-1935
Years 1946-49
20 21 22
23 24 25 26 27
28 29 30 31 32
33 34 35
46-47 48 49
D and C '
Dysmenorrhea
Endocervicitis,
chronic
Endometritis
Fibroid uterus
Fibromata, calci-
fied, multiple
Hemorrhage,
uterine
Hydrocephalia
Macerated placenta
Menopause
Menopausal neura-
sthenia
Menorrhagia
Menorrhea
Miscarriage
Ovarian trouble
Pelvic inflam-
matory disease
Salpingitis
Stillborn
Toxemia
Vaginal bleeding
Vaginitis
Prolapsed uterus
00 00 0.
00 0 0
00 00 0
0** 0* **
0* 00 0
* *
* ** *
* *
* r *
00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 0
00 00 00 00 00
3 00 0 0 -1
00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 00
** 3 ** **0
.. .. 1 1
*.. *.. 1 1
00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 1 .*
0* 00
00 0
*0 0
.. ..
00 00 00
00 00 00
00 00 00
00 00 0* 0 *
4 1
*
5 ..
00 00
00 00
00 00
00 00
00 00 0
00 00 00
00 00 00
00 00 00
00 00 00
00 1 *
00 00 0
00 00 *
00 00
00 00
00 00
o0 00 0* 00
*. *
o. ..
to 00 00
t0 00 00
** ** ** 0** **
** ** ** 0** *
00 0 0O.. 0t 6
** ** ** ** 6
** 1 .o 00 00
0** ** ** **
00
editions
.o 1
3 ..
.. 1
.* 1
** **
** **
.. 1..
* *
*o **
1 ..
.. 1
** 1
-- ---"
--- -- -- -- --- ---
- -
TABLE 5--Continued
Conditions Years 1920-1935 Years 1946-49
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 46-47 48 49
Monster go** ** o ** ** .0 *o ** of .0 ** .s** 0o 0 1 00..
DIGESTIVE
Biliousness .. *. .. .. 1 *.. *. 11 .. 2 .. .. .. 13 19 0.. .. .
Bowell trouble .. .. .. *.. .. *. .. 2 .. .. .. o 0. s 0o. .. 0. 0.
Celiac disease 00.. .0 .. .. .. .. ..* *.. .. .. .0. **.. 1 *.
Colic 00 *0 .0*0 00 10 1 00 00 1 *. *0 0. *. 00** 0 00 0 0
Colitis 0. o. 1 *.. o. .. 1 3 8 .o *. 9 s. .. .. 1
Enteritis .. .*o .. .* 00 00 00 .. .. .. .. .. .. 0 3 1. 1
Gastritis .. .. .. 1 .. .. 6 .. 6 8 9 21 .. *. 32 18 1 1 ..
Gastro-enteritis *. .* .. ... 0 .. ** 00 ** 00 00 0 .... 1 2
Indigestion .. .. 22 1 3 .. 3 5 15. .. 8 14 .. 22 26 o. .. ..
Intestinal
obstruction 0. ** *. ** o 00 o *0. 0* ** ** ** ** ** ** *. 1 ..
Intestinal atony 00 .. .o .. .. .. .. 0 *. *. o. .. .** ** ..
Parasites, uncle. ** .* .* .0 .* .o. .. .. .. .. .. 21 .. *. 1 5 3
Endamoeba coli .* .. .0. .. .. .. .. .. 0. .. .. 0. .. .. .. 2 .o ..
Endamoeba
hystolytica 0* 00 00 00 0 00 *0 00 00 00 00 0 00 0. **0 1 ..
Giardia lamblia *.. .. .0. .. ...* .. .0 .. .. .. .. .. 1 .. ..
Necator americanus 0.. 6 18 57 .. 45 7 22 33 37 56 30 21 .. 46 13 4 ..
Hymenolepis nana .0 ** *o. .. .00 o *. .0. 00 0 0 00 00 0. 0 $. 1 ..
Trichuris trichiura ,,.. 0 o ..0 .. 0 .. .. .*. 0 .* .O. 2 o.
Trichomonas *.. .. .. .. 0 #. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. 1 ..
Flagellates 0. so .. 00. ** 00. .0 00. .. .. .. .. .0 .o 1 ..
Protozoa 00 s *00 00. 0 a 0 00 00 *0 00 1 00
Strongoloids 00 *0 ** so 4* 00 0* 00 00 ** 1 **0 00 00 0. -3 1 ..
TABLE 5--Continued
Conditions Years 1920-1935 Years 1946-49
20 21 22-23
24. 25
26 27 28 29 30 31 32
33 34 35
46-47 48 49
Ulcer, gastric
"Stomach trouble"
ADDICENT, INJURY
Accident
Bite, alligator
Bite, monkey
Bite, snake
Burns
Concussion
Fracture, uncl.
Fracture, arm
Fracture, rib
Fracture, skull
Hernia
Hernia, umbilical
Injury, uncl.
Injury, auto
Injury, elbow
Injury, foot
Injury, knee
Injury, pelvis
Injury, shoulder
Intoxication,
rubbing alcohol
Laceration
Laceration, arm
a. .. .. @@
.. .. .. @.
0 ..4 ..
00 00 so
00 @* *0
00 a0 *0
0* 00 00
00 00 **
00 00 1*
*0 0 0 00
*. .. .
.. .. .
*. *
.* .. .
*. *. 1
*. .. .
*. .. .
*. .. o
*. .. *
.. .. ..
00 00 90 9. *0 00 00 00 *0
00 00 ** *. 00 00 1 ..
00 00
Oa 00
00 00
a0 00
* *
00 00
00 00
1 ..
00 0
0 .0
O. 0
.. ..
. ..
.. ..
.. ..
9 a a 0
10 00
00 *0
00 40
1 ..
2 ..
00 0 0
00 00
.1 .3
.1 ..
.3 ..
1 1
.1 .1
0 0
1 3
0 00 .0 00
0. 00 00 00
.. *. .. *
.. .. .. *
* ** **
.1 .
06 00
2 as
4 ..
1 ..
0* 0
00 0
6 ..
1 ..
6 ..
2 ..
1 ..
.1 ..
s0 .1 .1 00 .3 s** 0
.. .. 1 .. .. .. ..0
* .6 ..
00 *0 00
0* 0 a 00
00 @0 00
* 00 00
*. .. .
.* .. ..
.. ..
*@ @ *
*@ @ *
*e @* *
@* O@
*@ @
*@ @ *
O@ @@ *
* 7 *
*0 00 00
0. 00 *0
** **
S0 3 -0
40 a 0
I I- -
TABLE 5--Continued
Conditions Years 1920-1935 Years 1946-49
20 21 22 23
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
46-47 48 49
Laceration, eye
Laceration, nose
Laceration, scalp
Poisoning, food
Poisoning,
ptomaine
Poisoning, toxic
Puncture, nail,
foot
Sandspur in
throat
Wound, stab
INFECTION (other
than those listed
elsewhere)
Appendicitis
Cellulitis
Infected finger
Infected foot
Infected hand
Infected knee
Infected leg
Infected tendon
sheath, thumb
Peritonitis
Ulcer, leg
00 *0
*0 .6
00 06
** ** ** 5
00 00 00 00
0 *0 6*
0i 00
00 00
.. 1
00 0.
00 00
00 .04~
00 00
00 00
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 00 00 1 ** 00 00 00 00 So
00 00 00 00 00 00 04 00 .0 00 00 00 00
.0 00 #4 00 06 ** ** ** 1
*6 .* ** 00 ** 00 ** .* 2
1 .
*0 00
1 .
~4 00
00 00
00 00
00 .
0 00
00 00
*5 00
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 05 @0 00 00 00 00 00
1 ..
7 ..
.. 10
.. .1
00 00
4 ...
90 00
1 ..
1 ..
*0 *
*0 00
00 00
00 00
*0 .0
00 00
*. *.*
o* **
00 00
*4 00
0a So
00 00
- -
TABLE 5--Continued
Conditions Years 1920-1935 Years 1946-49
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
46-47 48 49
Ulcer, ankle
CONTAGIOUS
DISEASES (other
than those listed
elsewhere)
Chicken pox
Dengue Fever
Encephalitis
Malaria
Measles
Mumps
Polio, possible
Roseola infantum
Smallpox
Typhoid
Whooping Cough
MISCELLANEOUS
Alopecia
Amputation
Chills and fever
Defective spine
Dropsy
Feeding problem
Imbecile child
0* 0 *00 0 # a 0 00 00 0 0 1 &* *0 *
.. 1
30 14
.. 1
.. ..
O. @.
o 00
22 35
0 0 06
.. 14
00 00
OS ..
3
..
15
62
1
26
..
0.
..
*O*
* O
#0 ** 00 ** g0 00 .0 f* 0 00 *of 00 *0 .00 0
* 00 00
1
..
2
..
..
.0
..
*
* *
* *
*@ !*
*.. 1 ..
- --
TABLE 5--Continued
Condition .Years 1920-1935 Years 1946-49
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 46-47 48 49
Intoxication, in
automobile
Mastoidistis
Phlebitis
Senility
Sore feet
Streptococcus
Surgical
Vertigo
QUESTIONABLE
Cardinal terminal .... .. ..*
Erethynial .. .. *. ..
Hemorrhage (type?) *.. .. ..*
Hermatitis .. .. .. ..
Hypertension
(nervous or
circulatory?) .. .. .. ..
Metrigia .. *. .. ..
Metrosagia .. .. ..
Metrorogia .. .. .
Ulcer .* .. 1
8 .
ee 99
99 *9
94 94
94 49
1 .
4,1-
9. 4.
9@ 9*
1 .
96 99
44 4.
99 99
9* *e
94 4.
99 49
99 99
44 49
0S 49
49 99
@9 .4
99 *9
9. 9*
.9 94
99 44
9. *9
09 *a
** **
*0 O
@@ @@ @
S* 99 ** ** *4* ** *4 ** 44 ** **
** **
CHAPTER IV
INDIVIDUAL TOPICS IN DETAIL
General
This section presents in detail the data available from the
examination of individual hospital and clinical records for the years
19b5 to 1949, and the results of surveys made among the Seminole
Indians of Florida in 1935, 1951, and 1952 by public and private
agencies.
Since the material is presented as a description of condi-
tions, some of the data does not indicate abnormality or pathology
per se, but merely describes the situation or condition.
Female Functions and Childbirth
General.--Birth and womanly function are vital facets of a
people, and can yield insight into the general health picture. The
following data are based upon the examination of the individual case
histories of twenty-four female Seminole Indian patients in a large
municipal hospital. The period covered for this group is part of the
fiscal year 1946 and all of the fiscal year 19h7, that is, from July
1945 to June 1947.
Menarche.--The following data
available for seven Seminole women.13
Age in years
5.0
10.0
12.0
14.O
16.0
give the ages at menarche
Number of women
1
1
3
1
1
7
Number of Children and Births.--The following data show the
number of pregnancies previous to, and including the one for which the
patient was admitted to the hospital during the period covered by this
study:
Number of times pregnant
Number of cases
7
2
1
5
Unknown
Age of Seminole Women in Hospital Delivery.--Table 6 shows the
age of the same group of twenty-four women, their previous pregnancies
(gravida), the number of live births (para) up to this pregnancy, and
the condition of the newborn from this pregnancy.
1Comfort, after Parker (1891: 330), believed the age at menarche
is modified by climate, tribal habit, etc., and stated that the white
girls at frontier military3 posts menstruate at an early age. Monte-
zuma, after Parker (1891: 330) found that Indian girls menstruate about
one year earlier than white girls; he made his observations among the
Apache of Arizona. Era, after Parker (1891: 330), found the average
age at menstruation among Indian girls to be lh years; his observations
were in Nebraska.
TABLE
AGE AT DELIVERY I.CLiD.-:G
AIND CONDITION OF
Age
16
16
18
18
19
21
22
23
24
2h
26
27
28
28
29
30
35
35
35
40
16-19-20
Unknown
Gravida
1
1
1
1
1
2
6
3
4
-
2
5
3
6
4
2
7
1
3
6
PREVIOUS .r c;Al.CIES
THE iiZ.'jEO.R:!;.-
Para
0
0
0
0
0
5
2
3
1
4
2
5
1
1
6
2
Newborn
Good
Good
Unknown
Good
Unknown
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
Unknown
Good
Good
Unknown
Unknown
Good
-Good
Good
Septic
Fair
Good
Good
abortion at
4 months
*Data from case histories for the years 19h5-1949, at Jackson
Memorial Hospital, Miami, Florida. Although there seems to be among the
Seminoles an interim of several years between menarche of the mother and
the birth of her children, it should be borne in mind that the age
quoted by Seminole patients or their kin is subject to doubt as to
accuracy in some cases.
Duration of Labor.-Table 7 is a description of the duration of
labor with delivery at term (except for one case reported as "O0 weeks"
and two not reported, but probably also at term) compared with the type
of delivery, previous pregnancies (gravida), and number of previous
live births (para).
- --
~--- -- ~-
TABLE 7
TYPE OF DELIVERY, PREVIOUS BIRTHS,
AND DURATION OF LABOE R
Type of Delivery Gravida
Spontaneous 1
Spontaneous
Low forceps 6
Low forceps 7
Spontaneous 3
Spontaneous 1
Spontaneous 3
Low forceps 5
Spontaneous 3
Low forceps 1
Spontaneous 2
Spontaneous 6
Spontaneous 2
Spontaneous 1
Para
0
5
6
0
2
4
2
1
5
0
Duration
First StaRe 'Second Stage
3 hours
8 hours 30 min
6 hours
3 hours h5 min
12 hours 55 min
2 hours 25 min
8 hours 55 min
10 hours 10 min
min
min
min
min
min
min
min
min
min
min
min
min
min
Third Stage
min
min
min
min
min
min
min
min
min
min
min
min
*Data from case histories for the years 19h5-19h9 at Jackson
Memorial Hospital, Miami, Florida. In eight cases of term delivery
(spontaneous and low forceps) the duration of any of the stages was
unknown. The two abortions have also been omitted from the above
tabulation.
Ease of Delivery.--The following data describe the types of
delivery, and the number of cases of each:
Type of delivery
Cases
Spontaneous
Low forceps
Abortion
Unknown
*Excluding one complete abortion;
the foetus was expelled before
admission to the hospital.
--
I
Complications of Labor.l-The following data concern the period
of gestation-of normal and abnormal cases:
Period of gestation Number of cases
At term lh
hO weeks 1
Unknown 7
16 weeks (septic
abortion) 1
Complete abortion 1
One complete abortion (not included above) delivered an 8-week-old
foetus before admission to the hospital.
Foetal Deformities.--One hydrocephalus was reported in 1923.
In 1948 one male, one female, and one possible third case (female)
were reported. The two female cases were possibly from the same family.
One monster was reported in 19h7. It was a male with a double
hair-lip, cleft palate, imperforate anus, and no apparent eye-balls.
Venereal Disease.--As to the freedom from venereal disease
among the Seminoles, and conversely the complication of labor due to
it, the following data are reported: of the same group of twenty-four
Seminole women, only two had positive Kahn results (plus 1 and plus h),
16-
1It might be reasoned that many of the twenty-four cases were
foreseen as potential complications while still in the Seminole camp,
and were sent to receive white medical assistance. In such a case as
that, these hospital deliveries might represent a small segment of the
total birth picture. On the other hand, if the majority of these cases
were located on the reservation grounds or commercial camps near the
-city, they would have probably been brought into the hospital as
routine. To determine whether the maternity cases were representative
cf the former or the latter situation would involve detailed investi-
gation as the Seminole changes residence at intervals and there is more
or less continual interchange of backwoods Indians with those living in
proximity with medical facilities.
giving birth to normal, well babies. Of reported prenatal cases of
pregnancy with syphilis only one 32-year old female, 6- to 7 months
pregnant, was recorded. No data concerning the outcome of her
pregnancy was available.
Eclampsia and Toxemia.--One case of eclampsia was noted in a
29-year old pregnant Seminole female admitted to the hospital in August
1946 with a diagnosis of chronic glomerular nephritis. History:
gravida 7, para 6, last pregnancy November of 1945. Previous eclampsia.
Cerebral hemorrhage with right hemoplegia and partial loss of vision and
azotemic coma.
In 1934 six cases of toxemia were reported among the Seminole
Indians.
See page 68 for discussion of role of diet in eclampsia and
toxemia.
Post-Partum Hemmorrhage.--Information concerning post-partum
blood loss in the clinical records and delivery notes was deficient.
The few notes which were made on blood loss reported several estimated
and measured volumes of about 30 cc., 50 cc., and 300 cc. The failure
to record the loss could indicate that the quantity was negligible or
normal (whatever that was in that hospital at that time).
Post-Partum Care.--Dr. Claxton (Nash 1931: 34) proposed from
his survey in 1930:
S. that many gynecological examinations would reveal many
prolapsed uteri and other abnormalities due to improper
exercises directly after childbirth.
As concerns this post-partum care, several Seminole informants which the
writer queried in 1957 reported that the Seminole woman used no device
similar to the "squaw belt" (corset-like strip used by the Plains
Indians to compress the abdomen sometimes before, and more usually
after, childbirth), but does make use of a special diet and resorts
to some special exercises after being delivered.
Indeed, there were accumulated several various female disorders
and conditions among the Seminole women as per Dr. Claxton's prediction.
See Table 7, page 53.
Psychological Response to Maternity Hospitalization.--The
following situations concern the Seminole woman and her relation to
hospitalization
1. Miss Conrad5 reports this incident concerning a maternity
case in what she called a "real tribal family" (that is, living accord-
ing to the tribal law). The Chief of the woman's tribe said "she not
want him burned," referring to the reason behind why the woman did not
want to go to the hospital for delivery; she was afraid the placenta
would be burned (incinerated). So it was arranged for the delivering
physician to have the placenta wrapped up and returned to the family.
Thereafter, MissConrad received no further requests for the retrieved
placentas of women delivered in hospital now that the Seminoles knew
that it could be had if wanted.
2. Several of the histories of maternity cases had attached
forms (a Release from Responsibility Discharge) stating that the father
Miss Charlotte Conrad, former U.S. Public Health Nurse,
worked among, and is familiar with Amerindians, especially the Seminole
Indians- of Florida.
demanded release of his daughter before the attending physician
thought it advisable.
3. One maternity case had the comment in her record that she
refused to talk or answer questions placed by the staff.6
h. One mother would not remain in the hospital for treatment
because her children would not be allowed to remain with her.
5. In some cases a "feeding problem" of the child was what
prompted the mother to bring the child to the hospital. This was
entered in the admission notes, but other diagnoses were usually made.
---.. .- Visual ahd Ocular
The following data concerning eye inflammations were compiled
from a 1935 survey made in the Miami-Dania-Everglades, Florida area
(U.S. Indian Service 1935):
Cases of eye inflammation Age-sex of cases
1 Females under 6 years
9 Females over I. years
9 Males over 15 years
3 Females 6 to 15 years
2 Males 6 to 15 years
There were twenty-four Cases of eye inflammation among forty-nine
17
Seminole Indians.17
According to the author's own observations, some women, who
would be terror-stricken to deliver alone at home, relax, are reasonable
and of good cheer when confident of surrounding aid in a hospital. The
reserved Seminole Indian woman--reported at one time to have gone into
seclusion in the bush and have severed with her teeth the umbilical
cord--might understandably become rigid with apprehension, lost among
the gleaming and glistening paraphernalia of modern obstetrics.
17
1For the same area the survey reported seven cases of eye
inflammations among forty-one whites, and five cases among seventeen
Negroes.
The following data from the same survey report the cases of
ptergyiums occurring within the same group:
Cases of ptergyiums Age-sex of cases
h Females over 15 years
6 Males over 15 years
-ii p
There were ten cases of ptergyiums among forty-nine Seminole Indians.8
In 1951 Friedman (1952: 7) surveyed thirty-two Seminole Indian
children at the Dania Reservation at Dania, Florida. All but three
attended local public schools and did very little close eye work at
home. The ages were six to fifteen years old with one pre-school
five-year old. The five-year old had a left esotropia due to con-
genital blindness from cataractous lens; the child's father had a
similar condition. Friedman concludes:
Of thirty-two Seminole Indian children given static retinoscopy,
one simple myope, one simple myopic castigmat and two emmetropes
were found. The latter can be considered as verging on myopia.
Since natives usually show little incidence of myopia these few
would indicate a possible myopia induced by environmental stress.
(Italics mine.)
He states that the distribution of Seminole cases (74 per cent with
.50 to plus 1.00) "seems similar to findings among other U.S. school
children."
Circulatory
Table 8 represents data collected in 1935 concerning Seminole
Indian blood pressure and pulse rates.
18For the same area the survey reported two cases of ptergyiums
among fifteen whites, and two cases among seventeen Negroes.
TABLE 8
BLOOD PRESSURE AND PULSE VALUES FOR S&'IIJOLE INDIANS
IN SOUTH FLORIDA (MIAK-DANIA-EVERGLADES)*
Seminole Indians Values
Sex Age Number of Cases Blood Pressure(mm.) Pulse(min.)
Systolic/Diastolic
ilale 16-65 13 131 82 71
Female 14-54 15 132 81 81
*Report of Health Survey of the Seminole Indians of Florida.
Unpublished typescript by L. W. White, and W. S. Stevens, Medical Director,
hth District, March 25 to April 5, 1935.
Table 9 presents the foetal heart beat among fifteen new-born
babies in a large municipal hospital during the years 1946 to 1948.
The dataare from delivery room notes:
TABLE 9
FOETAL HEART BEATS PER MlTNUTE AMONG NEI-BORN
SE.iliOLE INDIANS DELIVERED IN THE HOSPITAL*
Beat/iinute Location of Auscultation
130 Right lower quadrant
132
132 Left lower quadrant
136 ---
138 Right upper quadrant
138 Left lower quadrant
140 Left lower quadrant
1]40 Left lower quadrant
140 Right quadrant
14u Right quadrant
112 Left lower quadrant
148 Left lower quadrant
148 Left lower quadrant
150 Left lower quadrant
160 Right lower quadrant
*Data from case histories for the years
1945-1949, at Jackson memoriall Hospital,
Miami, Florida.
Carcinoma
Carcinoma data, as related to age and sex found during the
period of this study are presented in Table 10.
TABLE 10
CARCiOMAi AS RELATED TO AGE AND SEX
AMONG THE FLORIDA SEMIIOL ITNDIA&NS*
Condition Age Sex Number of Cases
Cancer Unknovm Unknown 3
Carcinoma, pulmonary 72 years Male 1
Carcinoma, bladder 73 years Female 1
Carcinometastasis, 80 years Male 1
abdominal
--Data from the Annual Reports of the Seminole Indian
Agency, U.S. Indian Service, 1920-1935, and data from case
histories for the years 19h5-19h9, at Jackson Memorial
Hospital, iiami, Florida.
This can hardly be considered more than just qualitative evidence that
the Seminole Indian is susceptible to carcinoma.
Epilepsy
Miss Conrad states that she had personally observed an epileptic
seizure in a full-blooded Seminole Indian male. This was prior to 1946.
Albuminuria
The examination of the individual case histories revealed many
patients with albumin in the urine; the albumin ranged from a f aint
trace to plus four. The albumin was present not only among acute and
chronic cases of disease, but also among accident and injury patients.
This might be indicative of dietary conditions or metabolic processes.
Blood Sugar
According to the Florida State Board of Health 1952 Survey, their
were found to be nine cases of excess blood sugar among 279 Florida
Seminole Indians tested.
e
Hemoglobin Content
In 1952 the Florida State Board of Health made a blood survey
among the Florida Seminole Indians and the results show a peak of
hemoglobin content of 13.0 to 13.8 grams/100 cc. among 13U Indians.
If a value of 14-15 grams/lOu cc. for both sexes is considered normal
for Americans (Merck Index 195h: 1659), the Seminole falls under this
value. The reader is reminded of the heavy hookworm infestation among
these Indians and the many cases of anemia, and is referred to Table 5
on page 36.
Syphilis
According to the above 1952 survey, there were found among
279 Seminole Indians tested to be three positive laboratory diagnoses
of syphilis and eleven doubtful cases. See page 5h for other data.
Possible "mongolian spot"
An eight-month old Seminole female Indian was admitted to the
hospital for an upper respiratory condition; the admission notes
contained a comment on a "large, soft, purple-looking spot over the
coccygeal area."
Psychological Response to Illness and Hospitalization
The following has been quoted from J. L. Glenn's comments in
the 1931 Annual Report of the Florida Seminole Agency:
Hospitalization in all probability hastens death, for the Indians
have always lived under an open sky.
To place a man whose posterity for thousands of years lived in the
open in a closed room would induce lung trouble. To place such a
man while sick in such a condition, in all probability would
hasten death.
* . . . . . . .
An infirmary suited to the needs of the Seminole must not conflict
with those age long racial habits of the tribe. A patient, to
make progress, must be contented and happy. As long as the six
walls of a closed room lock a Seminole from the open sky, the
sunshine, and his kinsmen and people, he will never be happy. All
hospitalization ought to be done on the reservation and should be
adapted to the needs of this people.19
And .in 1935 Glenn writes:
When confronted with disease the Seminoles are beset with many
fears-fears that the white man has long left behind. A hospital
room may be crowded with the ghosts who have died in it--ghosts
who, all through the night, reach their long and white arms down
from the ceiling toward the suffering Indian. To warn them of
the dangers of any serious disease often drives them back to
their own medicine man and away from aid. Some aged relative
may get a notion that there is no aid for an afflicted relative
of the tribe. Strangely enough the patient refuses the services
of the physician, and awaits the "big sleep."
In some cases the Indian has enough vitality to recover and live
to discredit the prophecy of his relative. Their health problems
will be met through patience, tact, and education.
Miss Conrad has observed that the Seminoles cannot see the use
of being examined if they feel that they are not ill.
Summary of Individual Topics
The female functions of menstruation and birth were described
from available sources. The menarche falls within the reported range
for North American Indian woman, but toward the lower end. The
description of the psychological response of the Seminole Indian woman
to hospitalization may indicate how to improve hospital care for this
group. Parker (1891: 330) wrote the following of western Indians, but
19
19Bercovici writes of the Gypsies: "Whenever Gypsies have
settled in homes, their per cent of consumption is far greater than that
of the native population." (The Story of the Gypsies, N.Y., 1928)
which could also indicate the Seminole situation as per the available
data in this study:
The daughters and granddaughters of those sturdy aboriginal
matrons consult the pale-face doctor and are rapidly acquir-
ing the methods of the pale-face woman. We can do little to
prevent this evolution. One great stumbling block toward
success in this direction is the present physical condition
of the Indians. (Italics mine)
The naturally robust constitution is deteriorating and mis-
carriages and diseases peculiar to women are noticeably
increasing to the surprise and disgust of the Indian mothers
and grandmothers. The changes made are too radical--certainly
they are not rational--and the inevitable result is just what
might be expected--very general failure. (Italics mine.)
Findings of eye inflammations, ptergyiums, and possible myopia
due to "environmental stress" (Friedman 1952: 7) were the result of
three surveys, 1935, 1951, and 1952.
A representation of various cardiac conditions found among
the Seminoles was given. The blood pressure and pulse values reported
for some of the Seminoles were higher than those reported for Indian
groups in Peru, Central America, and parts of North America (Wilson
1950: 99); they were slightly lower than the white and Negro values
from the same area where the Seminole, white, and Negro groups were
tested together.
Carcinoma was found related, as far as was known, to an
advanced age in the patient.
The detrimental effect of hospitalization upon the Seminole
Indian, both psychologically and physically (especially in conjunction
with tuberculosis) was considered.
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
General
The discussion is organized into short considerations of the
Seminole way of life, acculturation, environment, ethnic immunity, and
possible transition phenomena, each illustrated with ethnographical
or medical material. A general conclusion of the whole study ends
the discussion.
The Seminole Way of Life
Let us see if the presence of any condition can be attributed
to a pattern in the Seminole mode of living. A good illustration should
be a condition which is not only reported frequently in the annual
reports, but is shown in "cover-all" surveys which do not depend so
highly upon the Indian's reporting for care of his own free will. This
latter type of patient may present just the serious or advanced form of
a condition, the milder forms being accepted by the Indians as normal
. for their way of life. Therefore, those conditions which have
been studied by survey methods may give a better insight into that
"way of life" or group pattern which is not always at first evident.
The illustration given here--conjunctivitis--was chosen because
of the steady indications of it through the source material--the annual
reports, hospital records, and surveys. It is in the surveys and
hospital case histories that there is most evidence of widespread
conjunctivitis. Although eye inflammation, or conjunctivitis, does
not appear in the annual reported lists of conditions more than
several times annually (see Table 5, page 36), I believe this is due
to the fact that the Seminole does not bother to report this condition
(or did not) unless he is definitely losing his tolerance of such minor
irritations which seem to be concomitant to outdoor living.20 In his
1951 report, Friedman reported that many children had conjunctivitis
(see page 58), and I have seen the admission notes on hospitalized
Indian children where examining physicians remarked on its general
presence in the children. In the examination given to forty-two
Seminoles as part of the 1935 survey (see page 57), over fifty per cent
were found to have eye inflammations, and of these the majority of cases
were males and females over fifteen years old.
Smoke as Factor in Conjunctivitis.--Is it possible that constant
irritation by the pungent smoke and many particles of wood fires contrib-
utes to eye inflammation among people employing such fires daily? In
blaming conjunctivitis upon smoke and face-paint, Holder (1882: 329)
refers to the Siouan name of the month of October--"sore-eye-month"--
to illustrate the incidence of this condition among the Sioux Indians.
20
To illustrate the.disparity of reported values with existing
conditions, the 1935 annual report gives 7 cases of conjunctivitis, and
the 1935 survey (page 57) gives 2h cases of eye inflammation upon
routine examination of the group.
(With the beginning of colder weather at this time, the Sioux probably
came into more contact with indoor fires and smoke).
Let us see what contact the Seminole has with smoky fires. The
Florida Seminole does not now cook in a closed dwelling, but in a
special chickee just for that purpose. (Before the widespread use of
the chickee following the Seminole Wars, a closed dwelling type was
described by Bartram (Van Doren 1928: 168) in 1773-177h, in which a cook-
room was located).21
If it could be assumed that most of the Seminoles still lived
most of the time in their chickees during the periods covered by the
health reports, we could perhaps expect some difference in eye inflam-
mation rates between males and females due to the women's prolonged
contact with the cooking fire in the cook-chickee. Of twenty-four
cases of inflammation among forty-two Seminoles, thirteen were females
and eleven were males. This is, of course, a meagre sample. However,
it might be noted that there is practically no difference. This might
indicate two possibilities: the Seminole male spends as much time at
the hearth as the women in his family, or there is another contact with
fire and smoke which affects both male and female equally. To consider
the first possibility, it must be noted that the Florida Seminole male
21Bartram's description of an enclosed cook-room in early
Florida architecture leads one to question Wissler's belief that the
absence of smoke-holes in most of the southern North American Indian
architecture indicated that in the whole area cooking was probably
carried on outside of the dwelling (Wissler 1922: 110). For another
possible reason for the absence of smoke holes, see footnote 22, page 67.
of more recent times did not always trek off daily on the hunting
trail as did his ancestors, but remained at the hearth engaged in
handicraft, the food coming from the general store with the excep-
tion of several home-grown and collected items. And to consider the
second possibility, we learn that those males occupied in work away
from home would probably still be exposed to smoke; the Seminoles used
a fire not only for cooking, and comfort during wet and cool weather,
but also as a protection from the Everglades mosquitos this latter
making especial use of smoke and smouldering fires.22
Vitamin Deficiency as a Factor in Conjunctivitis.--Insofar as
the role of vitamin deficiency in conjunctivitis is concerned, there
might be some objection to saying that the Seminole children suffered
from malnutrition, even before many had begun public and government
schools; although by certain modern American standards, children living
in an aboriginal state might be classed as undernourished, those child-
ren surviving into adulthood have been known to become well-formed,
strong, active adults-albeit sometimes of the "lean and hungry" warrior
type. Those factors, however, which might indicate malnutrition, and
which were found among the Seminoles included heavy parasite infestation,
and the lack of certain foods in the diet-namely milk.
22Swanton (1952: 427) quotes Dumont de Montigny as suggesting
that the omission of smoke-holes among the Caddo Indians was to rid the
dwelling of mosquitos. Dumont's observations were published in 1753.
Acculturation
Arthritis.--The first reported case of arthritis (1929) among
the Florida Seminoles corresponds with the first mention of the use of
alcohol to excess among them, Von iartius (1939: 92) reported in 1884
from Brazil:
Arthritis, recognized one of the principle ills of the red race
in North America, is of rare occurrence here [Brazil) and was
almost completely unknown before the widespread use of alcohol
[aguardente.].
It is not certain from the records whether the arthritis found a;ong
the Seminoles was the same as that type most likely to be associated
with alcoholic and dietary indescretion, i.e., gout, etc.
Toxemia and Eclampsia.--According to a Seminole informant, the
Florida Seminole woman, in addition to seclusion at the time of her
confinement, is restricted in her diet. The informant believed the
intake of salt--having increased with contact of the Indian with the
white population--had "something to do with some of the Seminoles
becoming sick."
Rothstock (1939: 750), in writing of western Indians,23 says:
Toxemia and eclampsia appear to have been unknown among the
Indians in their primitive state and it is probable that their
mode of life and restricted diet were important factors con-
tributing to their immunity. (-Italics mine.)
2Another reference is made to restricted diet by Rothstock
(1939: 750) writing on western Indians:
Her strenuous life, her frugal diet which at times amounted to
restriction bordering on starvation, regulated and restricted
the growth of the fetus to limitss which insured an easy passage
through the bony pelvis. Post maturity with overgrown babies
was unknown. (Italics mine.)
and further:
From the foregoing we may fairly assume that the Indian woman
lived on wholly what was the equivalent of a salt-free diet,
and if the opinion of Desnoo is correct, that on a salt-free diet
a woman never develops toxemia or eclampsia, might this custom
explain their immunity from toxemia? (Italics mine.)
Ethnic Immunity Versus Yfay of Life
There were not many cases of tumors or carcinoma reported
among the Florida Seminole Indians; those reported with an age, give
an advanced one. If these cases that were reported represent all or
most of this condition among all or most of the older Indians, then
the facts found among the Seminole may agree with the following con-
clusions of Hrdlicka and Rothstock concerning Amerindians in general:
Hrdlicka, after Levin (1919: h22-h35), wrote:
The relative excess of aged persons (80 years and above)
among the Indians can signify only that the infirmities
and diseases known ordinarily as those of old age are less
grave among them--a conclusion in harmony with general
observation. (Italics mine.)
and further:
Thus the difference in age cannot account for the rare
occurrence of cancer among Indians.
Rothstock (1939: 750) states in 1939:
Exhaustive studies have been made of the susceptibility of the
Indian to malignant disease, and, while the results have at
times been conflicting, practically all agree that among the
Indians living in present-day conditions cancer is less common than
in whites. There is reason to believe that it was much less
common among primitive Indians as in most instances they died
before the cancer age, the average being thirty-five or forty
years. (Italics mine.)
The above might possibly be interpreted a result of ethnic
immunity or of some as yet undefined facet of the Indian way of life.
Ethnic Immunity Versus Environment
Tuberculosis as Related to Ethnic Composition and Environment.--
Among the Florida Seminoles there were eleven reported cases of tubercu-
losis, three alluded to in years preceding the 1919-1935 annual reports,
and two questionable cases; in all there were fourteen plus the two
questionable cases.
Compared with Oklahoma Seminole rates, the Oklahoma "pure"--
which Hamlin (1933: 160) compares with the Florida Seminole-show a
higher rate of tuberculosis than do the Oklahoma n"mixed."
Hamlin reports:
The only diseases which show significant difference in
incidence between the "pure" and the "mixed" groups
are malaria and tuberculosis.
The Oklahoma "mixed" Seminoles show 14.3 per cent malaria and
1.7 per cent tuberculosis; the Oklahoma "pure" Seminoles show 3.7 per
cent malaria and 1l.6 per cent tuberculosis. These facts could indicate
the following: (1) The full-blooded status of the Florida Seminole
could be questioned; however, the population figures on page 8 report
a very low admixture; (2) The effect of environment, i.e., the presence
of infection among the neighbors of the Oklahoma Seminole (or if not
human carriers, then some other vehicle); (3) The Florida Seminole
presents a special case.
In regard to this latter case, and the possibility that the
pure-blood Florida Seminole is less susceptible to tuberculosis than
the pure-blood Oklahoma Seminole, Krogman (193h: h27) finds that the
Oklahoma Seminole--albeit "pure"--is pure Indian at the most, and not
pure Seminole as the Florida group is believed to be.24 This "racial
or ethnic integrity" was maintained, at least until recently, by
marriage restrictions2 and by geographical and physical isolation.
Hamlin (1933: 177) states:
The low frequency of tuberculosis among the Florida Seminoles
even today emphasizes the importance of isolation along with
preservation of native habitus in resistance to (or perhaps
avoidance of) any new etiological agent.
Thus, if any ethnic traits are operating, the environmental factor
masks it--at least as far as this study shows. Up to the present
(as covered by these data) the Florida Seminoles have shown the above
conditions in great profusion, but without apparent predisposition
thereafter to tuberculosis.
Again we have the possibility of ethnic immunity. The break-
down of the isolation factor (page 25) might be expected to yield
information on these ethnic traits, if present. However, the break-
do wn of the isolation might be accompanied by a possible change in
those traits as well as a modern medical and sanitary science to combat
rampant manifestation of tuberculosis.
On the other hand, assuming the isolation factor to be the most
important at this time as based on the foregoing sections, perhaps with
24
2Krogman (1934: 427) states: "The Oklahoma Seminole is an
extremely mixed type; non-Muskhogean (Hitchiti) plus Muskhogean (Creek),
white, Negro. These are his essential ingredients. Add to their inter-
mixture with other Indians and the crossing.and re-crossing of all the
variants, and the "full-blooded" becomes at best a full-blooded Indian
rather than a full-blooded Seminole."
-5See section on mixed marriage, page 21.
the effects of continued acculturation and violation of the hitherto
isolation, the aforementioned "harbingers" of tuberculosis might begin
to assume a greater significance in regard to that disease--in spite of
modern medical and sanitary science--and its possible future increase
among the Florida Indians.
Further Infection Through Acculturation, or
Protective Action Through Ethnic Immunity
Trachoma.--In the case of tuberculosis and hookworm, one was
prevalent in Oklahoma, but not in Florida (tuberculosis), and the other
was absent in Oklahoma but rampant in Florida (hookworm).26 The inci-
dence of trachoma, however, did not exceed three cases in Oklahoma in
1932, nor has more than one possible case been reported in Florida.27
The Florida Seminoles do show a high incidence of conjunctivitis
(Table 5, page 36). Related viruses are responsible for both trachoma
(or granular conjunctivitis) and the non-cicatricial conjunctivitis
known as inclusion blennorrhea or swimming pool conjunctivitis (Jawetz,
et al. 1956: 331). Could this incidence of conjunctivitis indicate a
precursor or "catching up" of the Florida Seminole to one of the scourges
of the Amerindian--trachoma? Or--if it can be shown the Florida
26Hamlin (1933: 155) reported in 1932 not a single case of hook-
worm among the Oklahoma Seminoles. Compare this with the Florida sit-
uation which prompted Claxton to comment in 1930 that many Indian child-
ren were so infested with hookwvorm that they showed valvular leaks
(page 36).
27
In the 19h6-1947 annual report there wasreported one case of
granular conjunctivitis (Table 5, page 36).
Seminole Indian has already "caught up" as much as he is going to do--
could this hitherto freedom from trachoma indicate the presence of any
protective action of any ethnic immunity in this Indian group?
Bacteriological investigation is indicated as part of any further study.
Tuberculosis.--Although the Seminoles of Florida have to this
time remained apparently free from rampant tuberculosis, they do exhibit
a great number of respiratory troubles, gastroenteritis, diarrhea and
dysentery among children. These conditions are named as possible har-
bingers of tuberculosis by Treon, after Holder (1892: 329), writing of
his experiences among the Crow Creek Agency in Dakota:
Consumption in these people appears in adults to follow an acute
attack of bronchitis or catarrhal pneumonia; while usually the
first symptom to which your attention is called in the child is
a looseness of the bowels, amounting at times to dysentery.
Conclusion
Comparison of certain conditions among recent Seminoles with
certain conditions of other Amerindians during and just after the
"frontier" acculturation of the past century, indicates that the
Seminole of Florida may present a delayed, but gaining acculturation
(as in a geometric progression), which other Amerindian peoples under-
went in the face of the last century's pioneer push.
Through the examination of the Seminole's way of life and his
surrounding physical and cultural environment, we have gained insight
into the effect of some of tne possible factors in the Seminole health
situation. Acculturation and environment are prime factors.
Although the effect of any ethnic immunity might be shown as
underlying factors in some of the problems indicated in this study, only
three cases were found in rhich direct explanation of a situation or
condition through ethnic consideration is indicated. These are the
discussions of trachoma (page 72), of cancer (page 69), and of
tuberculosis (page 70).
The forces of acculturation, thence the rigors of transition,
are indicated as the prime factors in describing he health of the
Seminole Indians of Florida.
It will take time to tell whether the continuing acculturation
of the Seminole will allow him to change appropriately with his
surroundings and thereby survive as a group. According to this study,'
the Florida Seminole is demonstrating grorring susceptibility to the ills
about him. It is possible that the appearance among the Seminoles of
diseases and conditions common to, and to the extent of, those concom-
itant to what we call modern civilization may indicate assimilation of
the Seminole into the context of his surroundings. This assimilation,
medically, is supported by the findings of cultural assimilation in
Chapter I, which underlie or give occasion to this medical assimilation.
Therefore, a general assimilation-indicated by the medical findings--
can be claimed.. At any rate, the annual population figures for the
period covered by this study have tended to increase.
Anon. 18h
Boyd, A. F.
Capron, L.
Gory, C. B.
Fairlie,
Freeman,
Friedman,
Greenlee,
1i.
E.
N
R
Hamlin, H.
Harrison, B
Holder, A.
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Nash, R. C.
Neill, W. T.
Parker, W.
1931 Survey of the Seminole Indians of Florida.
U.S. Congress, Senate, 71st Cong., 3d Sess.,
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Office.
1952 Florida's Seminole Indian. Silver Springs,
Ross Allen's Reptile Institute.
1891 Concerning American Indian Womanhood; an Ethno-
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5: 330-341.
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Spoehr, A.
1941 Camp, Clan, and Kin Among the Seminole of Florida.
Chicago, Museum of Natural History.
State of Florida 1952
Florida.
Health.
Stirling, G.
Blood Survey of the Seminole Indians of
Jacksonville, Florida State Board of
(Copy of typewritten results.)
1936 Report on the Seminole Indians of Florida.
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Located at Dania, Florida.
Swanton, J. R.
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Howard H. Hirschhorn was born April 26, 1931, at Baltimore,
Maryland. His family later moved to Miami, Florida. He was' graduated
from Miami Senior High School in 1950. After studying at Vanderbilt
University at Nashville, Tennessee, and at the University of Puerto
Rico, where he finished his pre-medical program, he attended and was
graduated from the University of Miami, where he received the degree
of Bachelor of Arts in German language and literature in 1954.
He spent the next three years with the U.S. Army in Europe.
He entered the University of Florida in September, 1957, where he
pursued studies leading to the degree of Master of Arts under the
Department of Sociology and Anthropology.
He is a member of Delta Phi Alpha Honorary German Society,
Alpha Kappa Delta Honorary Sociology Society, and the Vanderbilt
University Honorary Pre-medical Society.
This thesis was prepared under the direction of the Chairman
of the candidate's supervisory committee and has been approved by all
members of that committee. It was submitted to the Dean of the College
of Arts and Sciences and to the Graduate Council, and was approved as
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of ,Arts.
August 9, 1958
Dean, College of Arts and Sciences
.7j.Dean, Graduate School
SUPERVISORY C O2IITTEE:
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