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InformationLiteracy:21stCentury LibraryResearchMethodsfor AfricanStudiesDanielA.Reboussin* 1.WhatisinformationliteracyandwhyisitimportantforAfricanstudies? Today ’ sinformationenvironmentforAfricanstudies,asinotherareas,isvastly differentfromwhatitwasinthelastcentury.Thecentralproblemforlibrary researchersinAfricanstudiesdecadesagohingedonawarenessofarelatively fewspecialist,publishedreferenceandotherprintbibliographictoolsfor discoveringrelevantmaterials(Frank-Wilson 2004 :106;seeMcIlwaine 2007a ).ManymoreresourcesareavailablenowfromAfricanandother sources,buttheypresentacomplexterraintonavigateformanyreasons,both oldandnew(seeLimb 2007 ).Thefieldhasbecomemoreinterdisciplinaryin termsofdatasourcesandsubjectmatter,makingbibliographicsearchesinany singletopical,geographical,ordiscipline-basedsource(oreveninthemost comprehensiveindexdatabases)lesslikelytofulfilallofone ’ sscholarlyneeds. Whilescholarlysourcesofdocumentationarefreelyavailableonline,thesemay befragmentary,idiosyncraticorincompleteascitationsaremadeavailable passivelyandwithoutcontextthroughservicessuchasGoogleScholar.1Studentsmayencounterlibraryresourcesonlinewithouthavingdevelopedthe criticalevaluationskillsandcontextualjudgementthatmoreexperienced scholarsmaytakeforgranted(Hargittai etal 2010 ),andwhichmaybe essentialtoemployduringlibraryresearchtoidentifyandengageeffectively withAfricanscholarlyperspectives. ThisessaycallsforAfricanstudiesacademicprogrammestoeducate studentsininformationliteracy,orlibraryresearchmethods,sothatthey becomemorecapableofnavigatingtherichbutdifficultandincreasingly complexinformationenvironmentofthe21stcentury.Mybackgroundand attentionisontheNorthAmericanuniversityenvironment,somyarguments andconclusionsareinformedprimarilybythisperspective.WhileIhave attemptedtoincorporateAfrican,Europeanandotherworldperspectivesin *DanielA.ReboussinisHeadoftheAfricanStudiesCollectionsattheUniversityofFloridaGeorge A.SmathersLibraries.HisanthropologydoctoralfieldworkwasconductedinSenegalwithwomen migrantstoDakarfromtheLowerCasamanceregion.HisworkintheDepartmentofSpecial&Area StudiesCollectionsincludesarchivalprocessingofAfrica-relatedmanuscriptsandcollaborationwith theUniversityofFloridaDigitalCollections(< http://ufdc.ufl.edu/ >)toprovidefree,worldwide,open accesstotheseuniquematerials.Email:danrebo@uflib.ufl.edu1Librariescanlinksubscription-basedscholarlydatabaseandfulltextresourcestoGoogleScholar, providingaccesstotheirelectronicholdingsforalllibraryuserswhologintotheiruniversityaccounts. AtNorthwesternUniversity, ‘ libraryadministratorsfounda78percentincreaseinrequestsforarticles comingfromGoogleScholarusers ’ (Google 2007 ).Transparencyandseamlessness,twoadvantagesof thisapproach,arealsoproblems:usersremainunawarethattheyareaccessingsubscriptionsourcespaid forbytheirinstitutionallibraries(Herrera 2011 :329).

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thiswork,muchoftheliteratureontheinformation-seekingbehaviouroflibrary researchersfocusesonundergraduatestudentsintheUnitedStates.Muchof myownworkiswithpostgraduateandfacultyresearchers,butarelativelysmall portionofpublishedsourcesfocusonthesemoreadvancedgroups(whose membersbyallindicationsdemonstratequitedifferentresearchbehaviourby disciplineandotherfactors).Myinterpretationoftheoverallliteratureisthat additionaltraininginlibraryresearchmethodsisneededtoimprovelibrary researchskillsateverylevelandthatsuchtrainingshouldbeofferedinasmany differentformats,locationsandsettingsaswecanofferinordertofindways toengagelibraryresearchersinthetimesandplacesthattheyneedassistance. Forsomestudents,formalcredit-bearingcourseworkmaybeappropriate. Onesuchgroup,Iargue,isgraduatestudentsinAfricanstudies,manyofwhom faceparticularchallengesinpursuinglibraryresearchwithintheirfields. Informationliteracy,formulatedconceptuallyintheUSinabout1990,isthe abilitytoengageastrategicapproachindiscoveringappropriate,available sourcesofinformationgivenaresearcher ’ sneedsandresources,allowingthe researchertoadaptandemployresearchskillseffectivelyandefficientlyina complexandchanginginformationenvironmenttoevaluate,use,communicate andmanagefindings(seeBadke 2008 :2 – 4,7;Gibson 2008 :16 – 18;seealso CILIP 2011 ).TheAssociationofCollegeandResearchLibraries ’ (ACRL) reviewofbestpracticesforteachinginformationliteracyrecommendsthe integrationofdisciplinarycontentwithinformationliteracyconceptsthat ‘ resultsinafusionofinformationliteracyconceptsanddisciplinarycontent ’ (ACRL 2006 ;seeJohnson,Arendall,Shocret etal 2010 :53 – 4).University studentsaregenerallyfarlessinformation-literatethantheyimagineorreport, sotheyremainlimitedintheirabilitytoconductscholarlyresearch.Thisisno lesstrueforstudentsinAfricanstudiesthanitisforuniversitystudentsmore generally. Unlessuniversitiescultivateimprovedinformationliteracyamongcurrent students,studentsinturnwillnotbeaseffectiveatgatheringandanalysingor interpretingusefulinformationastheymightbeintheiruniversityworkand later,duringtheirprofessionalcareers.Beyondtheacademy,professionalsmay sufferevenmoreiftheylackastrategicapproachthatpreventsthemfrom developingorincorporatingnewsearchskillsintotheirwork-relatedlibrary researchastechnologieschangethroughouttheirworkinglives.Shortcomings ininformationliteracymayimpedepractitionersfromthediscoveryandimplementationofproven,publishedsolutionstotheproblemstheyarecharged tomitigateandresolve.ThiswasthecaseinonerecentstudyofTanzanian livestockveterinarians,whohadaccesstoarangeofusefulelectronicresources ofwhichfewwereaware,althoughthosewhohadbeentrainedininformation literacydidemployarangeofeffectivesearchingskills(Angello 2010 :13 – 16).2 2SeeTable5listinginorderofgeneralawarenessthefollowingresources,availablewithoutcost(or atasmallinstitutionalcharge)topractitionersinthedevelopingworld:AGORA(AccesstoGlobal OnlineResearchinAgriculture,aFAOproject,see:< www.aginternetwork.org >);HINARI(aWHO projectsponsoringaccessto1,500healthrelatedjournalsfrommajorpublishers,see< www.who.int/ hinari >);Medline,see< www.nlm.nih.gov >;Inform(theInternationalNetworkforOnlineResources andMaterials,see:);CochraneLibrary(anNGOwithofficialtiestoWHO,see < www.cochrane.org >;Ingenta,see< www.ingentaconnect.com >;OARE,apublic-privatepartnership sponsoredbytheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeandYaleUniversity,see: < www.oaresciences.org >;TanzaniaDevelopmentgateway,see:< www.tanzaniagateway.org >;viii Introduction

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AsimilarcasewasreportedforagroupofKenyanmedicalprofessionals (KamauandOuma 2005 :6).TheseexamplesarefrustratingfromanAfricanist librarian ’ sperspectivebecausetheyillustratehowinsufficientlevelsof informationliteracyeffectivelypreventaccesstoappropriatescholarly informationresources,despitegreateffortandprogressinimprovingthe availabilityofsuchresourcestoresearchersandpractitionersindeveloping areas(seeMurray 2009 ).3OneofthemostrewardingaspectsofmyworkasanAfricanstudieslibrarian isteachingstudentshowtoovercomethedifficultiesofworkingwithAfrican andotherscholarlyresourcestomoreeffectivelyandstrategicallyengagein libraryresearchrelatingtoAfrica.Whileinstructionplaysaroleinmanyofmy encounterswithlibraryresearchers,includingemailmessageexchanges, classroomorientationsandone-to-oneconsultationsinmyoffice,themost thoroughandeffectivewaytodevelopstudents ’ informationliteracyforAfrican studieslibraryresearchhasbeenwiththegraduatecreditcoursethatIhave taughtforovertenyears.Inthisessay,Idescribewhatweknowoflibrary researchandinformation-seekingbehavioursofstudents(muchofitthanksto theincorporationofethnographicmethodsintostudiesofhowstudents perceiveanduseinformationresourcestoconducttheirresearch),considerthe diversityoftheirskillslevelsandarguethatthereisanoverallneedformore (andmoreformal)traininginlibraryresearchmethods.Itishelpfulto understandhowstudentsarepursuinglibraryresearchpriortointroducing moreeffectiveresearchstrategiestothem.Whileusefulworkaroundsolutions tointroduceimprovedstudenttraininginlibraryresearchhavebeendeveloped andpursuedbycreativeinstructionallibrarians,ImakethecaseforwhatI considerthemosteffectivelong-termsolutionforAfricanstudiesandother graduatestudents:offeringfor-creditinformationliteracycoursesdesigned specificallyfortheirdisciplinaryneeds.Finally,Isummarizethecontentsofmy course,emphasizingtheconceptual,strategicapproachthatIhavefoundto workbesttodramaticallyimprovethelevelofstudents ’ informationliteracy. 2.Studentinformation-seekingbehaviourwithinandoutsidelibraries Thereissometruthtothestereotypicalimageofthetechnologicallyskilled universitystudent.Havinggrownupinaworldofseeminglyubiquitous electronicgamedevices,networkedcomputers,wirelesscommunications, sophisticatedgadgetsandinstantaneousonlineaccesstotrovesofinformation, manyuniversitystudentsseemutterlyateasewitheverythingdigital,internet, wireless,andmobile;theyappeartobenaturallygiftedexpertsatrapid informationaccessfromanywhere.Whilesuchstudentscertainlyexist,theyare notasrepresentativeoftheiruniversitypeersassomemayimagine.Asan academiclibrarianatalargeuniversity,Imeetmanystudentswhoare embarrassedbytheirlackofskillsinelectronicinformationsearching, unfamiliaritywithlibraryresearchandinability(orunwillingness)tobein constantmobilecontact.Theyknowwhatisexpectedofthemandunderstand thattheydonotfitthisoversimplifiedimage.Themajorityofstudentsmay TanzaniaOnline,see:< www.tzonline.org >;HealthandWellnessResourceCentre,see:< www.gale. cengage.com/Health/HealthRC/about.htm >;andAfricaJournalsOnline,see:< www.ajol.info >.3SeealsoHarris(n.d.)foranexampleofoneexceptionalvolunteerefforttoeducatehealthcare practitionersinAfrica.Introduction ix

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neverrequesthelpwhenconfrontedbyalibraryresearchproject,despitethe availabilityofreferencelibrarianswhoareeagertoassist(orreferthemto disciplinaryspecialists)throughawidevarietyofconvenientcommunication channels. Academiclibrariansmaybepronetobelievethat ‘ digitalnatives ’ (Prensky 2001a 2001b ), ‘ Millennials ’ (HoweandStrauss 2000 2007 ),or ‘ net generation ’ students(Tapscott 1998 1999 )enteruniversitywithwell developedonlinesearchskills,demandingnewservices(GardnerandEng 2005 ;Gibbons 2007 ).Thisgeneralizedimpressionmaybeduetoselection biasamongthosestudentswhoaremostvocalandwillingtoapproach librariansandpublicserviceorreferencedesks,whereasonestudyreported thatupto85percentofstudentswereanxiousaboutlibraryresearch assignments,embarrassedattheirlackoffamiliarityandunwillingtoreveal theirignorancebyrequestinghelpfromlibrarians(Mellon 1986 :162;see Fister 2002 ;Vondracek 2007 ;Bridges 2008 ;AsherandDuke 2011 ).Agood dealofresearchdemonstratesthatuniversitystudentsareadiversegroupin termsofskillslevels,use(or,astheseauthorsdemonstrate,avoidance)of libraryresourcesandbuildingsandexpectations.Thesecharacteristicsreflect economic,gender,culturalorracial,educational,anddisciplinarybackgrounds (Whitmire 1999 2001 2002 2003 ;Bridges 2008 ;Hargittai 2010 ).Thereis noneedforeducatorstorevolutionizereliableeducationalmethodsorfor librarianstoreshapebasiclibraryservicessimplybecauseofthechanging backgroundsofsomeofourmostvisiblestudents.Their ‘ everydaytechnology practicesmaynotbedirectlyapplicabletoacademictasks ’ (Bennett etal 2008 : 781).Eventhosestudentsalreadycomfortablewithdigitaltechnologiesasdayto-daytoolsoutsideofacademianeedtolearnsomeofthespecificapproaches andsearchtechniques(forbothprintanddigitalresources)requiredfor effectivescholarlyresearch(Barry 1997 ;Kai-WahChu etal 2007 2008 ). Amongtheseareskillsinindependentlyevaluatingthecredibilityand appropriatenessofsourcesdiscoveredonline,ratherthannaivelytrusting searchenginerankings,commercialrelevance-sortingalgorithmsandpaid placementdealsbetweenadvertisersandsearchengineproviders. ‘ Howusers gettoaWebsiteisoftenasmuchapartoftheirevaluationofthedestination siteasanyparticularfeaturesofthepagestheyvisit ’ (Hargittai etal 2010 :486; seeFlanaginandMetzger 2007 ). Scholarlyandgeneralinformationenvironmentsarelargeandcomplex; librariesthemselvespresenttheirownorganizationalandnavigational challenges(bothphysicallyandonline).Rapidtechnologychangelimitsthe long-termvalueofspecificsearchskillsandchallengesallofuswhoworkinthis changinginformationenvironmenttoconstantlybuildnewawarenessand upgradeourskills.Basedonempiricalresearchemployingethnographic methodsatseveralUSMidwesternuniversities,AndrewAsher,leadresearch anthropologistattheEthnographicResearchinIllinoisAcademicLibraries (ERIAL)Project,recentlysummarizedthissituationwithregardtouniversity students:“ Studentsdonothaveadequateinformationliteracyskillswhentheycometo college ... evenhigh-achievingstudents ... they ’ renotgettingadequate trainingasthey ’ regoingthroughthecurriculum.Studentoveruseofsimple searchleadstoproblemsofhavingtoomuchinformationornotenoughx Introduction

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information ... bothstemmingfromalackofsufficientconceptualunderstandingofhowinformationisorganized, ” hesaid.Thoselibrariesthathave triedtoteachgoodsearchprincipleshavefailed,hecontinued,becausethey havespent “ toomuchtimetryingtoteachtoolsandnotenoughtimetrying toteachconcepts. ” Itwouldbemoreusefulforlibrarianstofocustraining sessionsonhowto “ criticallythinkthroughhowtoconstructastrategyfor findinginformationaboutatopicthatisunknowntoyou ” (Kolowich 2010a ).Alltoofrequently,studentsarelookinginthewrongplaces,orintoofewof therightplaces,whentheyengageinscholarlyresearch.Theydonot necessarilyunderstandhowalibrarycataloguediffersfromjournalindex databases,orthedifferencesamongthetensofthousandsofindexesandother specialistdatabasesavailablethroughtheiruniversityandlibraryaffiliation. Theyalsomaynotbeawarethatloggingintotheironlineuniversityaccounts whileresearchingonlinedramaticallyenhancesevenpubliclyavailable resourceswithsuchbenefitsasfulltextaccess(seeGoogle 2007 ).Somemay beeffectiveworkinginonedatabase,orinafewsearchinterfaces(each incorporatingmanydatabases),butmaynotbeawareofhowbesttomodify theirresearchtechniquesinothersettings.Evenamonggraduatestudents (whogenerallyhavedevelopedbetterskillsinusingspecificjournalsets, bibliographicindexdatabasesandsimilarresources)awiderangeof informationresourceawareness,researchsophisticationandtechnicalsearch skillsisevidentinreviewinginitialclassroomexercises.Manylibraryusers (oftenusinglibraryandotherinformationresourcesfromoutsidethephysical librarybuilding)needassistancetousetheseinformationsystemseffectively andefficientlytoconductscholarlyresearch(Suchman 1987 2007 ). Animportantfirststepinknowinghowbesttosupportandassistacademic researchersseekingscholarlyinformationistoimproveourunderstandingof theirneedsbylearninghowtheyconductlibraryresearch.Librarianshave recognizedtheimportanceofunderstandinglibrarycommunitiesasameansof improvingservicestotheirusersforoveracentury(seeCutler 1896 ;Stingley 1919 ;Wheeler 1924 ).Ourfirstinclinationinseekinglibraryuserperspectives andinputisoftentoaskthemdirectlythroughsurveys.Whilesurveysmaybea usefulmethodforassessingwhatlibraryuserswantorneed,therearerisksto relyingonsurveyresponsesalone(seeBernard 2011 ;MillerandSalkind 2002 ). Forexample,samplingbiasisdifficulttoavoid:includingpeoplewhowalkinto thelibrarymaybeaskewedrepresentationoftheoverallpopulationoflibrary resourceusers,whileonlineusersmaynotbewellrepresentedbythosewho respondtoanonlinesurvey.Validityisnotoriouslydifficulttoestablishusing surveymethods(forexample,respondentsmayreportsatisfactionbecausethey arenotawareofmissingbutusefulresources).Furthermore,therearestrong indicationsthatstudentsgenerallyevaluatetheirownresearchskillsasabove average(seeTwenge 2006 ;TwengeandCampbell 2009 ),wheninfactthey maymostoftenrelyongeneralonlinesearchtools,ratherthanspecialist resourcesbettersuitedforscholarlypurposes.4Asonerecentresearchteam 4InformationprovidersareunderpressuretoemulateGoogle ’ ssimplesearchinterface.However, overrelianceonGoogledoesnotservescholarlypurposeswell(seeWalsh 2004 ;Zell 2006a ;Kolowich 2010b ).Moststudentsdonotunderstandwhatinformationsourcesare – andarenot – includedin Googlesearches,thestructureoftheinformationavailabletothesearchengine,howsearchresultsareIntroduction xi

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putit: ‘ peopledonotnecessarilydowhattheyreportonsurveys ’ (Hargittai etal 2010 :486). Therearemanyexamplesofwelldesignedsurveys5thatanswerimportant questionsandprovidevaluableinsightsforlibrarians,publishersandscholars asweevaluatetheimpactsandoptionsinprovidinglibraryservicesandworkto improveaccesstoandawarenessofscholarlyresources(seeWhitmire 2002 ; Heath etal 2004 ;ChrzastowskiandJoseph 2006 ;RadfordandSnelson 2008 ; Bridges 2008 ;SchonfeldandHousewright 2010 ).Butemployingavarietyof socialresearchmethodsinlibrariesprovidescomplementarysourcesof evidenceandotherimportantbenefits.Focusingobservationdirectlyon researcherandlibraryuserpractices(ratherthanonattitudes,opinionsand self-reportedactions)providesanopportunitytogatherdatanotavailableto surveys,whichisespeciallyimportantinbuildingawarenessofissuesor problemsnotyetidentified.Byconductingbehaviouralresearch,weallow ourselvestheopportunitytoseelibraryresearchersinanewlightandtobe surprisedbyourfindings.Bypayingattentiontochangesinlibraryresearch behaviour,wecandevelopstrategiestoreachourclientelemoreeffectively, teachtheprinciplesofinformationliteracyandprovidestudentswiththetools theyneedtoexcelinarapidlychanginginformationenvironment. Onewaytoinvestigatelibraryusers ’ informationseekingpatternsmoreor lessindirectlyistointerviewandobservehowtheyinteractwithreference librarians,engagewithlibraryservicesandsharewiththeircolleaguesthe resourcestheyhavefound(seeEllis 1989 ;O ‘ DayandJeffries 1993a 1993b ; Folster 1995 ;NardiandO ’ Day 1996 1999 ;SadlerandGiven 2007 ).Citation patternsareindirectevidencethatcanbeunobtrusivelyobserved,asscholarshiprequiresdocumentingconsultationwiththearchive,allowingothersto accessdatasourcesforindependentanalysisandinterpretation.Citation patternanalysisallowsconvenientcomparisonovertimeandacrossdisciplines aswellasconcreteevidenceoftheimpactofarapidlychanginginformation environmentonscholarlypractices.Thesestudiesmaysuggestwaysthat librariescantargetparticularacademicareasforimprovedservices(see Broadus 1987 ;WilberleyandJones 1989 ;Ellis etal 1993 ;Watson-Boone 1994 ;Brown 1999 ;Hiller 2002 ;Hemminger,DihuiLu,Vaughan etal 2007 ; Evans 2008 ;KayongoandHelm 2009 ;Smyth 2011 ).6Appliedanthropologyistheemploymentoutsideofacademiaofresearch methods,theoriesandconceptsfromthediscipline.It ‘ becamearecognized disciplineintheprewarcolonialepoch ’ (Thompson 1976 :2).7Applied anthropologistshaveplayedanimportantroleinbringingbehaviouralresearch rankedforrelevancyandreturnedtotheuser,orhowadvancedsearchescanimproveresults(see Tenopir 2002 ).5Usingalesscommonmethod,Daly( 2011 )employsasmallsample,intensiveinterviewtechnique toexploreDukeUniversityundergraduatehonoursprogrammeparticipants ’ researchstrategiesand processes.6SeeWebb,Campbell,Schwartz etal .( 1966 :37)foraclassicexampleofanunobtrusivemeasure: thatofmuseumexhibitpopularitybasedontilewear.Evans( 2008 )isparticularlyinterestingforthe debateinspiredbyhiscontroversialfindingthat,asthescholarlyarchivehasbeenopenedthrough convenientelectronicaccess,socialsciencecitationshave(counterintuitively)narrowed.7Theearliestknownuseoftheterm ‘ appliedanthropology ’ datestoan1881meetingoftheRoyal AnthropologicalInstitute(Bodley 1999 :173).Thiswasnotalocalizedoridiosyncraticusage,asDaniel Brintonusedtheterminhis1895speechonPaulBrocainWashingtonDC(Peattie 1958 :4).Edward BurnettTylor(afounderofEnglishsocialanthropology)calledanthropologya ‘ policyscience ’ andxii Introduction

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methodstomanyfieldsandorganizations.Anthropologistsconducting researchoncampusandinlibrariesmaybringmediaattentionthatplaysonthe ironythatmundane,stereotypicallyformal8institutionsshouldinterest ethnographers,associatedmorewithworkinfar-offlandsthanamongourown ‘ digitalnatives ’ .Infact,anthropologistshaveworkedinfamiliarorganizations (seeAgar 1980 ;vanMaanen 1988 )andonuniversitycampuses(seeMoffatt 1989 ;Nathan 2005 )fordecades.Noneofthisshouldbesurprising:theorigins ofanthropologyasadisciplinelieinanengagementwiththeimportantsocial issuesofthe19thcentury.9Theearliestexamplesofethnographicmethodsemployedinresearch relatingtolibrariesgrewfromworkontheroleofinformationtechnologyin organizations(seeOrlikowski 1991 ;OrlikowskiandBaroudi 1991 ).Authorsin technicalfieldssuchasinformationsystemsdesign(Bentley,Rodden,Sawyer etal 1992 ;AvisonandMyers 1995 ;HarveyandMyers 1995 ;Harvey 1997 ; Hartmann etal 2009 ),informationretrieval(Ellis 1989 )andhuman-machine interfaces(Suchman 1987 ,seealso 2007 2ndedition;NardiandO ’ Day 1996 1999 )havenotgenerallybeenprofessionalanthropologists,buthaveemployed andadvocatedethnographicmethodstounderstandinformation-seeking patterns,closelyrelatedtolibraryresearchbehaviours.Amongtheseauthors, onlySuchmanandNardiareprofessionalanthropologists.Suchmanworked for20yearsasaresearcheratXerox ’ sPaloAltoResearchCenter(PARC), developinginformationsystemsbasedonherethnographicstudiesofwork. Nardi,withresearchpartnerO ’ Day,acomputerscientistwithoverlapping experienceinresearchlaboratoriesatHewlett-Packard,AppleComputerand PARC,focusesoncorporatereferencelibrariansandservicesatthese institutions(NardiandO ’ Day 1996 ).Consideredgroundbreakingbymany, thisarticleismuchappreciatedbyreferencelibrariansthemselves,whoare identifiedasa ‘ keystonespecies ’ inthe ‘ informationecologies ’ ( ibid .:81)of modernorganizations(importantinmakingtechnologyworkwellforusers). BoththisstudyandSuchman( 1987 )emphasizetheunderappreciatedimportanceofhuman,expertagentsinmediatingtheengagementofpeoplewith technologicalresources,providinguserswithmoreresourcesthantheyknow theyneedandplayingarolethattheauthorssuggestwillneverbeeffectively subsumedbythesoftwareagentsthatmaynonethelesssupplementthem. Anextendedobservationofacademiclibraryserviceswasconductedby Pedersen,Espinola,Huston etal .( 1991 ),butinmanywaysKlopfer ’ s( 2004 ) JamesHunt,co-founderoftheAnthropologicalSocietyofLondon(whichmergedwithrivalgroupsto createtheRoyalAnthropologicalInstitute),usedtheterm ‘ practicalanthropology ’ (Simonton 2010 ). Between42to60percentofPh.D.anthropologistsandvirtuallyallM.A.anthropologistsworkoutside theacademyatpresent(Guerrn-Montero 2008 :1;seeFiske 2008 ;KediaandvanWilligen2005).The historyandscopeofappliedanthropologyisreviewedbyNolan( 2003 );EddyandPartridge( 1987 );Fox ( 1991 );Peattie( 1958 );Rylko-Bauer etal .( 2006 );Simonton( 2010 );vanWilligen etal .( 1989 );and vanWilligen( 2002 ).8Modernlibrariesanduniversitiestracetheiroriginstomedievalmonasticpractices,butthereare classicalsurvivalsintheseinstitutionsaswell,nottheleastofwhichareofficialcomplaintsattheircost. In Detranquillitateanimi (ix,4 – 7)SenecatheYoungerarguesthat ‘ Suchamassofbooksjust overwhelmsthestudentanddoesn ’ tteachhimanything ’ (Setton 1960 :373).9‘ TheethnologicalsocietiesofLondonandParis[foundedintheearly19thcentury] were ... abolitionistorganizations ’ (Peattie 1958 :4);AmericanlawyerandanthropologistLewisHenry MorganappliedhisresearchtodefendIroquoislandrightsagainsttheOgdenLandCompanyinthe 1840s(MorganandWhite 1993 :2,54;seealsoArmstrong 1978 ).Introduction xiii

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ethnographyofpopularsidewalkcommerciallibrariesinIndiarepresentsa closerantecedenttotheapproachofcurrentworkinconsideringthe communitycontext.Whileother ‘ interactiveobservationsofusersorlibrarians withinparticularlibraries ’ (e.g.,PendletonandChatman 1998 )employthe termethnographic,fewconsiderhowthecommunityofusersinteractswiththe informationecologiesofthelibrary: ‘ Likemuseums,librariesarecomplex institutionswhosepersonnelandtechnologiesmediateformalandinformal practicesoflearning,entertainmentandcommunication. ... Librarystudies wouldbenefitfrombroaderethnographicresearchthatplaceslibrariesin communitiesandsocieties ’ (Klopfer 2004 :106).Theauthorsuggests Durrance( 1995 2001 )isabettermodelforthisbroaderview.Morerecent work,suchasthatofDent(DentandYannotta 2005 ;Dent 2006 ;DentGoodman 2011 ),offersanethnographicperspectiveofaUgandacommunity libraryandinsightintoapplyingethnographicresearchmethodsinlibraries (includinghistoricalprecedentsincommunityanalysis).Severalrecentstudies ofAfricancommunitiesandtheiruseoflibrarieshavebeenrecentlyreportedas well(seeKwake etal 2005 ;Chilimo etal 2011 ;andStilwell 2011 ),while participantobservationmethodswereusedtoinvestigatefacultyresearch behaviour(whoselibraryresearchmethodsweregenerallycharacterizedas ‘ trialanderror ’ )byethnographersatseveralSwedishuniversities(Haglundand Olsson 2008 :55). Anemergingtrendintheethnographicstudyoflibrariesandlibraryusers appearstobelargelyassociatedwithprojectstodesignlibraryservices,redesign spaces,buildnewfunctionalareasandestablishinformationorlearning commons(seeBeagle 1999 ;Bisbrouck 2001 ;Bennett 2005 ).Whenbuilding projectsareplanned,fundsmaybecomeavailabletohireconsultants,opening uppossibilitiesforethnographicresearchfocusingonlibraryusers.Anearly exampleofsuchstudieswasconductedatTheUniversityoftheSouth (O ’ Connor 2005 ),butgreaterattentionhasbeenfocusedonthe ‘ Rochester Study ’ attheUniversityofRochester ’ sRiverCampuslibraries(seeFosterand Gibbons 2007 ).Inpartthismaybebecausethelatter(directedbyan anthropologist)appearstohaveinspiredsomanyothereffortsatemployinga rangeofbroadlyethnographicmethodstounderstandstudentbehaviourwith relationtolibraryresourcesandbuildings(seeSuarez 2007 ;Gabridge etal 2008 ;Bryant 2007 2009 ;Bryant etal 2009 ;Delcore etal 2009 ;Applegate 2009 ;Gilbert,Hulsberg,Monson etal 2010 ;DukeandAsher 2011 ).These studieswereundertakenatBrockUniversityinCanada,theMassachusetts InstituteofTechnology,LoughboroughUniversity(UK),CaliforniaState UniversityatFresno,IndianaUniversity-PurdueUniversityIndianapolis, NorthwestMissouriStateUniversityandbytheEthnographicResearchin IllinoisAcademicLibraries(ERIAL)Project,whichincludesDePaul University,IllinoisWesleyanUniversity,NortheasternIllinoisUniversity,the UniversityofIllinoisatChicagoandtheUniversityofIllinoisatSpringfield. Giventhattheseprojectshaveallbeenreportedinthelastfiveyears,thebreadth oftheirgeographicalrepresentationandthediversityoftheirinstitutional characteristicsareremarkableandtheirfindingsrichlydeserveattention. InareviewoftheRochesterstudy,Seadle( 2007 )callstheprojecta milestone,asabout30percentofthelibrary ’ sprofessionalstaffwereinvolved intheresearch(seeFosterandGibbons 2007 :55),butalsobecauseofthe innovativeuseofadiversesetofmethodsthatincludedgivingcamerastoxiv Introduction

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students,askingthemtotakephotographsanddrawmapstohelpthelibrarians understandtheirsocialconstructsofthelibrarylandscape( ibid .:48).The Rochesterstudyhasattractedspecialistjournalisticcoveragein TheChronicleof HigherEducation and LibraryJournal (seeCarlson 2007 ;Marshall etal 2007 ), producing,forexample, ‘ oneofthemostpopulararticles TheChronicle hasrun inrecentyears ’ (Carlson 2009 ).10Anumberofconferencesessions,workshops,blogentriesandthelikehavefollowed,concentratingtoalargeextent onundergraduatestudy,work,orresearchpractices(seeBishop 2010 ;CARLI 2010 ).Alsoannouncedforpublicationthisautumnistheeditedvolumeonthe ERIALprojectentitled CollegeLibrariesandStudentCulture (DukeandAsher 2011 ).113.Studentlibraryresearchandtheneedforbetterinformationliteracy Whatdowecurrentlyknowaboutstudentlibraryresearchbehaviour?Even goodstudentsatprestigiousinstitutions(suchasMIT)lacksufficient awarenessofthescholarlyresearchtoolsthatacademiclibrariesprovideand theskillstousethemeffectively(Gabridge etal 2008 :521 – 2).Theyoveruse generalresourcesandunderusescholarlytoolssuchasthelibrarycatalogueand journalindexdatabases.While ‘ thetypicalstudentin[theRochesterstudy]was familiarwithdatabasesotherthanGoogle ’ (FosterandGibbons 2007 :8;see Herrera 2011 :323),theymaystillunderusescholarlyresourcesinfavourof familiar,everydaysearchengines.Studentsmayevaluatewebsitesbasedonthe perceivedprofessionalismofpagedesign,oronofficial-appearingnamesand logos(AsherandDuke 2011 ).TheyliketheextremesimplicityofGoogle ’ s screendesign(Seadle 2007 :617)andnavelytrustthispopularsearchengine brandtoplacethebestandmostappropriateresultsontop:Tocompletemanyoftheassignedtasks,studentsoftenturnedtoaparticular searchengineastheirfirststep.Whenusingasearchengine,manystudents clickedonthefirstsearchresult.Overaquarterofrespondentsmentioned thattheychoseaWebsitebecausethesearchenginehadreturnedthatsite asthefirstresultsuggestingconsiderabletrustintheseservices.Insome cases,therespondentregardedthesearchengineastherelevantentityfor whichtoevaluatetrustworthiness,ratherthantheWebsitethatcontained theinformation(Hargittai,Fullerton,Menchen-Trevino etal 2010 :479). Studentsdifferintheextenttowhichtheyunderstandthereasonsbehind searchenginerankings.Afemalehealth-sciencesmajordescribedhersearch routineasfollows: “ IusuallyclickonthefirstthingthatIsee. ” Askedto clarifyhowshedecidestopickthefirstresult,sheemphasized, “ Well,Iknow theonesthatare[ ... ]inhere[pointingtotheshadedSponsoredLinksection onaGoogleresultspage]they ’ rethemostrelevanttowhatI ’ mlookingfor. ” Interestingly,inthiscaseshewaspointingtoahighlightedlinklabelledasa SponsoredLinkbyGoogle.Whilesponsoredlinksmaywellbeapplicableto asearchquestion,theirplacementontopoftheresultspageisatleastinpart determinedbyfinancialincentivesratherthansolelyrelevance,apointthe 10‘ Ananthropologistinthelibrary:theU.ofRochestertakesacloselookatstudentsinthestacks ’ TheChronicleofHigherEducation53(50):A26,17August,< http://chronicle.com >,accessed27May 2011.11Iwouldliketothanktheauthorsandpublisherforprovidingmewithapre-publicationdraftofthis volume.Introduction xv

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respondentdidnotraiseatall,presumablybecauseshewasunawareofit ( ibid .:484).Moststudentsdonotaskforhelpwiththeirlibraryresearchfromlibrarians (favouringadvicefrompeersorinstructors).Thismaybeinpartbecausethey considerlibrarians ‘ bookexperts ’ ratherthaninformationspecialists: ‘ Iwould talktoalibrarianwhenIneedtofindbooks.Ican ’ timagineanythingelseI wouldneedthemfor ... ’ (FosterandGibbons 2007 :10). ‘ Inthemindsof students,librariansequalprint ’ ( ibid .:60).Otherresearchsuggeststhatmost studentsfaceanxietywhenaskedtodolibraryresearchandmayavoidseeking helpinordertosaveface,ormayhavenotfoundsatisfactoryhelpinthepast (Mellon 1986 :162;seeFister 2002 ;Vondracek 2007 ;Bridges 2008 ;Miller andMurillo 2011 ).Accesstoanduseofscholarlyresearchresourcesprovided bylibrariesisnotrelatedtophysicalpresenceinlibrarybuildings,butis decentralizedtomanyoff-sitelocations,resultinginfeweropportunitiesfor buildinglibrarian-researcherworkingrelationships(HaglundandOlsson 2008 : 55 – 6).Therearefeweropportunitiestoengageandteachserendipitouslyor opportunisticallyaslibrarianshavedoneinthepast(Fister 2002 ).12Fromtheir perspective,the ‘ libraryisforstudying ’ andthatisgenerallythereasonthey visitanduselibrarybuildings.Finally,universitystudentsrepresentadiverse, heterogeneouspopulation.Theirhabitsandneedsvarybydiscipline, demographicsandothercharacteristics.Inthefollowingsection,Iconsiderthe implicationsofthesefindingsforlibraries. Theseoverallfindings,firstandforemost,supporttheassumptionthat universitystudentswillbenefitfromacombinationoflibrarytrainingsessions andinformationliteracycoursestointroduceseveralscholarlytoolsand supportastrategicapproachtotheirlibraryresearch.Brieftrainingsessions buildawarenessoftherangeoflibraryresourcesandencouragemore sophisticatedsearchingskillswithavarietyofgeneralandspecialistresearch tools.Contactandfamiliaritywithlibrarianinstructorsismostlikelytoreduce anxietyandcreateopportunitiestobuildrapport,engageininformalteaching andbuildanunderstandingoflibrarians ’ areasofexpertise(includingprintand electronicinformation,aswellasotherformats).Insofarasthesesessions involveinteractionwithacademicdepartments,facultyandgraduatestudents, theyalsoprovideopportunitiestodevelopcollaborativerelationshipsamong academicsandlibrarydisciplinaryspecialists.Oneofthemostimportant outcomesinworkshopsandshorttrainingsessionsmaybetointroduce studentstothelibrarianresponsibleforsupportingtheirmajordiscipline(or simplyawarenessthatlibrarydisciplinaryspecialistsexist),encouragingdirect follow-upshouldtheywishtoseekassistanceatalaterdate.Alongwithbrief orientationandtrainingsessions,thereisaneedformoreformalandindepth courseofferings,especiallyforgraduatestudentsandotherswhomayneedto developtheirlibraryresearchskillstoagreaterextent. Informationliteracycoursesforcreditareavailableonaminorityof NorthAmericanuniversitycampuses(Owusu-Ansah 2004 2007 ; 12Aninterestingresponsetothedecentralizationoflibraryusewasrecentlyreportedas ‘ gamingthe library ’ .AnMITprofessorpurposelykeptoverduebooksbecausestudentswantingthemweresentto hisoffice.Hetheninterviewedthemaspotentialassistants,knowingtheysharedaninterestinhisareaof expertise(HarvardLibraryInnovationLaboratory 2011 ).xvi Introduction

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Gibson 2008 ).13Giventhissituation,alongwiththelackofinformal opportunitiesthatusedtobethemainstayofentrylevellibraryskillseducation (forexample,interceptingapparentlybefuddledorloststudentsinthelibrary), traininginlibraryresearchmethodsshouldbeintegratedintoavarietyof dispersedstudentactivities.Atmyuniversitylibrary,thegreatesteffortfor manyyearswasdirectedatintroducingabout1,100first-yearEnglishenrollees toasingle,scripted,hour-longlibrarytrainingsessioneachsemester(standard coursenumberENC1101intheStateUniversitySystemofFlorida).This programmefacedproblemsofscalability(Gibson 2008 :15),requiredconstant managementtoscheduleinstructorsandconsumedagreatdealoflibrarians ’ time.Librariansorstaffmembersreadstandardizedscriptsdirectlytolarge sectionsofstudentswithlittleassessmentofwhatlearning(ifany)wastaking place. Iamhappytoreportthatsincethattime,thingshavechanged.Thelibrary instructionprogrammeatmyinstitutionhassincebecomebetterintegrated withacademicdepartmentsandmorecollaborativewithdisciplinary instructors.AcombinedfocusontrainingTeachingAssistantstothemselves incorporateinformationliteracyandspecificlibraryskillsintotheuniversity ’ s first-yearwritingcoursesisthecurrentapproach,providingonlinesupport materialsdirectlytostudentsandreducingtheworkloadconsiderablyformany librariansforwhominstructionisnotaprimaryassignment.Asaresult, academiclibrarians(withdisciplinaryexpertiserangingwellbeyondthefew EnglishDepartmentcoursespreviouslytargetedforsupport)havebeen enabledtorespondmorecreativelytostudentneedsintheirbranchesand disciplineswithavarietyofcomplementarystrategiestoimproveinformation literacyinlieuofformalcourseavailability.Forexample,manyofmy colleagueshavedonesoby ‘ embedding ’ informationliteracycontentinto academiccourseswithinstructorswhocollaboratewithlibrarianstoteach informationliteracymodulescloselyintegratedwithcoursecontent(Dewey 2005 ;Hine,Gollin,Ozols etal 2002 ;Johnson,Clapp,Ewing etal 2011 ;Love 2009 ),creatingpeerbasedinstructionalprogrammes(Deese-Robertsand Keating 2000 ),linkingwithcampuscommonreadingprogrammes(Shoop 2010 )andintegratinglibrarytrainingwithelectronicandsocialgaming (RussellGonzalez,Davis,Dinsmore etal 2008 ).Librariansatoneinstitution offeraworkshoppromisingtrainingto ‘ Googlelikealibrarian ’ (O ’ Kellyand Lyon 2011 ).Whilelibrariesshouldnotsimplyofferusersanythingtheywant, ‘ ourjobistolearnhowtoreachthemandteachthem ’ (Seadle 2007 :618)in thecurrenthighlydecentralizedsituationonuniversitycampuses. Thesecreativeapproacheshavebeenaneffectivewaytointroducebasic informationliteracyconceptstoalargenumberofuniversitystudents,across manyacademicprogrammes.Theyarecomplementedbyseveraladditional strategiesatmyinstitution,includinggeneralandtopicalworkshopofferings, advertisedeachsemesterforstudentsmotivatedenoughtoseekoutbrief instructionalsessionstoimprovetheirlibraryresearchskills.Disciplinaryor liaisonlibrariansoffer ‘ ondemand ’ or ‘ dropin ’ instructionalservicesas targetedone-to-oneconsultationsessionstosupportstudentsinspecific 13About30percentofsurveyedinstitutionsofferedsuchcoursesin1995(Holder 2010 :5). ContributorstoLau( 2008 )indicatethatinatleastsomeothercountries,morecomprehensiveofferings areavailable.Introduction xvii

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programmeswhorequestindividualassistance,mostoftenwithalibrary researchassignmentinhand.Publicserviceandotherlibrariansandstaffoffer instructionalsessionscateredtospecificclassneedsinlibrarytrainingrooms,in theacademicdepartment ’ sclassrooms,orelsewhereoncampus.All disciplinaryliaisonlibrariansatmyinstitutionalsoprovideonline,web-based resourcesandguides(sometimesavailablethroughinstructionalcourse managementsoftwareorasvideos,whichcanbemediatedbychatortelephone referenceservices).Together,theseandsimilareffortsbringlibraryinstruction tousers,whereandwhentheyneedassistance,andprovideacreative,varied andchangingmixofinstructionalopportunitiestoabroadrangeofuniversity studentsacrossallacademicprogrammeareas. Beyondthesevaluableinstructionaleffortstoprovideassistanceto individualsandgroups,formalcoursesshouldbeapartofthemix.French universitieshaveestablishedacomprehensiveapproachthathasreduced attritionsignificantlyamongfirstyearstudents(Lamouroux 2008 :141; Coulon 1999 ).Offeringindependentinformationliteracycoursesisnot withoutcontroversywithinUSlibraries(Holder 2010 :6),wheremanyonly supportinstructionthatiswellintegratedwithacademicprogrammes. Establishingfor-creditinformationliteracycoursesalsomaybehinderedbythe perceptiononuniversitycampusesthattheneedisforremedialortechnical skillstraining,bestaddressedbylaboratories,libraryworkshopsandother supportunitsratherthantheacademiccurriculum.However:Itisonethingtocreateatutorialorholdaclasstoteachsomeonehowto searchadatabase.Itisquiteanothertohelpthatsamepersontonavigatethe troubledwatersoftheinformationrevolutionwithsuchskillthattheright informationforthetaskiseffectivelyandefficientlyfound,evaluated,and thenusedtooptimumadvantagewithinlegalandethicalboundaries (Badke 2008 :7).Theremaybenosubstituteforcredit-bearingcoursestoimprovethe informationliteracysituationoncampuses(Hollister 2010 ).Whiletheconcept ofinformationliteracyispopularandcurrentinlibraryliterature(see:Badke 2008 ,Hine,Gollin,Ozols etal 2002 ,Hollister 2010 ;Lau 2008 ,Mackeyand Jacobson 2005 ,Owusu-Ansah 2004 ,Scales etal 2005 ),theterminologyis unfamiliartomostfacultyintheacademicdisciplinesthatlibrariansserve.In introducingthisconceptoutsideoflibraries,asIhavedoneinthisessay,Irefer to ‘ libraryresearchmethods ’ .Thisapproachresonateswellandappropriately withacademicfacultyandadministratorsasastrategic,contextual,adaptive andholisticapproachtoconductinglibraryresearchwithinthecontextofa discipline,asopposedtosimplytrainingstudentsinspecificskillsor techniques,whicharevulnerabletoobsolescenceasinformationtechnologies change.14 14MyfirstsuccessinthisregardoccurredovertenyearsagowhenIappliedtomyuniversitygraduate curriculumcommitteetoincludesuchacourseinthecatalogue.Thestaffmemberresponsiblefor collectingapplicationsontheirbehalftoldmethatthecommitteewouldneverapprovea ‘ library ’ course atthegraduatelevel.Fortunately,IhadthefullsupportofthedirectorofourCenterforAfricanStudies and,together,wepromoteditasaresearchmethodscourse.Thisapparentlymadesensetothe members,asitwasapproved.IhavetaughtiteachFallSemestersincewithstudentcourseevaluation feedbackthatisconsistentlyhigherthanthecollegeaverage.xviii Introduction

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4.TeachinginformationliteracyforAfricanstudiesgraduatestudents Idesigned,andteam-taughtwithmyformercolleaguePeterMalanchukfor almostadecade,thecourse AfricanaBibliography (coursenumberAFS5061)15fromthegrounduptofocusonlibraryresearchmethods(thoughitwasnamed accordingtoanearlierconceptionoflibraryinstruction).Sincebeforewefirst taughtthecoursein2000,colleaguesatinstitutionsinEuropeandtheUShave promoteddirectingAfricanistlibrarians ’ expertisetowardsthisapproachto teaching ‘ ratherthanspendingtimecreatingnarrowspecializedbibliographies ’ (Johnsen 1998 :67).16AfterdiscussingthehistoryofthecourseatIndiana University,MarionFrank-Wilsonexplainsthat:Thefocusoftheclassisnolongeronhowtofindscarce,hiddenmaterials, butrathertodevelopstrategiesandtechniquestofindawidevarietyof materialsrangingfromprintsourcestooralaccounts,aswellassources foundinAfricanarchives;and,moreimportantly,tobeabletoevaluatethese sourcesfortheirqualityandrelevance(Frank-Wilson 2004 :106).Irecognizetheimportanceofadoptingastrategicapproachtoteaching informationliteracyinAfricanstudies,addressingknownlibraryresearch behaviourpatternstoimprovestudentmethodsandsuccess.Whilemy approachhaschangedovertime,thefollowingthemesguidemypresentation oflibraryresourcesintroducedthroughoutthecourse.Itcanbeastruggleto ensurethattheclassisnotoverwhelmedbyasurveyofresourcesortools,but insteadfocusesontheirstrategicuseaccordingtoaresearchplan.Thesheer numberanddiverserangeofsuchtoolsinalargeacademiclibrarycandistract aninstructorintospendingallavailableclasstimeindescribinguseful resourcesandtechniquesforusingthem.Anyseriousattemptatsurveying Africanstudiesreferenceresourcesrequiresbook-lengthtreatmentandregular updating(seeforexample,Kagan 2005 ;Zell 2006b ;McIlwaine 2007a ).Fora class,itismoreimportanttomaintainafocusonresearchstrategiesthan specifictools:distinguishingbetweeneverydaysearchesoftheopenweband authenticateddeepwebsearchingthatincludesaccesstoproprietaryand scholarlydatabases;developingawarenessoftherangeofpotentiallibrary researchtoolsalongwithanunderstandingoftheirappropriateuse(basedin partontheadoptionoftheresearchnotestechniqueIdescribebelow);and buildingacriticalunderstandingofspecialistAfricanstudiesresourcesthat includesanappreciationoftheconditionsthatmightlimitAfricanscholarship fromdiscoverability.Ialsopromotethecontributionofsomeportionof creativeandscholarlyoutputtoopen-accessresourcesasawayofbuilding high-qualityresearchrepositoriesforusebyAfrican-based(andother)scholars whomaynothavethebenefitofaccesstocommerciallypublishedand distributedjournalsorothersourcesofscholarship. 15Thecoursesyllabusisavailableonline:< http://guides.uflib.ufl.edu/content.php? pid=6493&sid=1480100 >.16Thisassertionwasnotacceptedwithoutcontroversy,accordingtoWalsh( 2004 :8).Kagan( 1998 : 69 – 72)offersabriefhistoryofthesmallhandfulofsuchcoursesatuniversitiesintheUS.Formalcredit coursesinAfricanStudiesresearchstrategiesarecurrentlytaughtatthreeUSinstitutions.Mosthave postedthesyllabusandcoursematerialsontheirwebsites:UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign, IndianaUniversityBloomingtonandUniversityofFlorida;asimilarUniversityofCaliforniaat LosAngelesofferingremainsinthecoursecataloguebuthasnotbeentaughtforseveralyears (seeWalsh 2004 :87 – 8).Introduction xix

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Ibeginclassroomdiscussionfromafamiliarpoint,buildingoncommon understandingsandadaptingtheemphasisasIbecomemorefamiliarwith studentsastheclassproceeds(enrolmenthasaveragedsevenstudentsover time,soitiseasytogettoknoweveryone).Everystudententerstheclassroom withsomeexperienceusingGoogleandotheronlinetoolsforeverydayneeds. Aconvenientplacetobeginconversationsaboutplanninglibraryresearchisto askquestionsabouthowtheyuseGoogle.IvolunteerthatIusethissearch enginemanytimeseveryday,leadingdiscussionintohowwebsearches function(conceptually,nottechnically)andthelimitsofwhatinformationis accessibletosearchengines.Theinformationavailabletopublicusersof Googlecanbecalledtheopenor ‘ surface ’ web.Theinvisibleweb,deepwebor darknetreferstoinformationavailableviatheinternetthatisnotaccessibleto generalsearchenginessuchasGoogle(Wright 2009 ). Accesstosuchprivatelycontrolledinformation,whichmaybe500timesas largeasthepublicinformationontheopenweb,maybehiddenforallbut peer-to-peertrustedusers(possiblyprovidingsomeprotectionforillegalor illicitactivities),orlimitedbycommercialdatabasesthatonlygenerateweb pagesdynamicallyonceauserisauthenticatedasapayingcustomerora legitimatememberofthesubscribinginstitution(He,Patel,Zhang etal 2007 : 95;seeKing,Li,Tao etal 2007 ).Atpublicinstitutions,simplyaccessingthe internetfromalibrarycomputermaybeenoughtogainaccesstoproprietary resourcesasalegitimateuser(Mann 2005 :xiv),butremoteuserequires accessingaproxyserver,orpreferably,theinstallationofavirtualprivate network(VPN)programmeontheuser ’ spersonalcomputerormobiledevice. Becausemanyexperiencedusersofpublicresourcesavailableontheopenweb arenotawareofthescaleoftheinvisibleweb,understandingthisdistinction canbeenlighteningandagoodinitiationintothevalueofunderstandingwhya strategicapproachtolibraryresearchisvaluable.IpointoutthatGoogle Scholarbecomesaqualitativelydifferentresourceonceloggedintoauniversity accountsothatlibraryresources,includingfulltextonlinebooksandarticles, canbecometransparentlyandseamlesslylinkedtothecitationsprovidedby GoogleScholar(seeGoogle 2007 )andotherapplications.Thisisagoodpoint todiscussassessingsourcecredibilitythroughevaluationofauthors ’ academic credentials,determiningwhetherornotanarticlehasbeensubjectedtopeer reviewandaconsiderationofpublisherreputation,alongwithattentionto appropriatecitationpracticesinscholarlywriting.Inmyexperience,fewifany graduatestudentshavethenavefaithinGoogle ’ srelevancesortingreportedby Hargittai,Fullerton,Menchen-Trevino etal .( 2010 ). Scholarlyresearchersbeginningworkinanewareawillbenefitgreatlyby employingasimplebutpotenttechnique:keepingalistofsearchterms(such askeyauthors,titles,relevantkeywords,subjectterms,themesandconcepts) derivedfromthesourcesconsultedduringtheirlibraryresearch.Thisenables combiningtheadvantagesofmanyresourcestogether,especiallywhen multipleiterationsofsearchesarerepeatedthroughasetofknownreliableand promisingnewresources.Thissearchnotestechniquecreatesafocused, dynamicaidtotheresearcherbycollectingdifferingconceptualapproaches acrossdisciplines,spellingvariations,alternatetermsandthelike.Theseare importantissuesinworkingwithAfricansubjectmatter,wheretherangeof ethnic,geographicalandothertermsvariesgreatlyovertime,acrossdisciplines andbasedonnationaltraditions(seeKagan 2005 ;McIlwaine 2007a 2007b ).xx Introduction

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Particularlytroublesomearecolonialnamesandtheirchangesafterindependence,politicalsplitsandmergersandcasessuchastheBiafraWarinNigeria, whichhasbeenenteredwithoutthename ‘ Biafra ’ inLibraryofCongress subjectheadings(as:Nigeria – History – CivilWar,1967 – 1970).Otherkinds ofchangesinnamingpracticesoccurwithindisciplinesovertime(Walsh 2004 : 20 – 4,25,37).GretchenWalsh ’ sarticleisthebestsourceIknowofforfocusing student ’ sattentiononthemanywaysthataseeminglygoodsearcheffortcan failinthefaceoftherealitiesthatmakeresearchonAfricantopicsverydifficult indeedandistheonesourceIrequirestudentstoread. Inintroducinglibraryresourcesandbuildingawarenessoftherangeof scholarlyresearchtools,IpromotetheapproachadvocatedbyMann( 2005 ), structuringmypresentationstofirstintroducethevalueofreferencematerials andtheirproperuseasastartingpointforlibraryresearch.Onecannotdevelop aneffectivestrategyforundertakinglibraryresearchwithoutsomefamiliarity withtherangeofpossibleresourcesandasenseofhowinformationis organized.Mann ’ sguideprovidesasurveyofthekindsofgeneralandspecialist referenceresourcesavailableatalargeacademiclibrary.Ialsopresentthemain functionsandgoalsofalibrarycollectionmanagementapproach,where responsibilityfortheintellectualscopeandcohesionofacollectionoflibrary materialsinsupportofanAfricanstudiesacademicprogrammeisintegrated (forexampleselectionofmaterialswithinaknownbudget,controloverthe acceptanceandrejectionofgiftitems,decisionsonlocation,prioritizationfor conservation,reformattingorde-accessioning,etc.)toprovideanappreciation oftheoptionsandlimitationsforalmostanylibrarycollection.Iintroduce otherlibraryfunctionsastheyrelatetoAfricanAreaStudies(e.g.cataloguing, preservation,digitization)andofferanoverviewofcampuslibrarycollections, branches,organizationandthelocationofmaterialsinspecificformats(audio andvideorecordings,governmentdocuments,maps,etc.).Becauselibraries organizecollectionsdifferently,formanyreasons,onemayneedtofamiliarize oneselfwiththegeneralapproachtoarangeofmaterials,subjectsandformats priortonavigatingtheavailableresourcesatanunfamiliarinstitution. Themetaphorofnavigatingthroughaninformationlandscapeor environmentisrelevant,astherearemanyinterrelatedpathsalongwhich bibliographicmaterialscanbeconsidered.Eachprojectsuggestsdifferentsets ofresources,soitisusefulforthelibraryresearchertobefamiliarwiththe possibilitiesbeyondhercurrentneeds.Forexample,thehistoryofpublication inagivencountrymaybedocumentedinnationalbibliographies.Myformer colleaguePeterMalanchuksuggestssuchaprogressionforGhanawiththe 36-page GoldCoastLibrary (Cardinall 1924 )listing791items,followedbythe 5,168citationsfromthe16thcenturyto1931inthe384-page Bibliographyof theGoldCoast publishedin1932(reprintedasCardinall 1970 ),aneffortto coverallpublicationsonGoldCoastandGhanafrom1930 – 61(Johnson 1964 ) andsubsequentattemptsatsimilardocumentationbytheGhanaLibrary Boardwith GhanaNationalBibliography .Thissequencedemonstratesthatas thecorpusofnationalpublicationsgrowshistorically,thefocusmustturnto whatevermorespecialistreferencetoolsareavailable,suchasthoserepresented bytopicalanddisciplinarybibliographies.Onealsomayconsultselective individualcountryvolumessuchasthoseinthe Worldbibliographicalseries (see, forexample,Myers 1991 ).Wheremultipleeditionsofabibliographyare available,asMcIlwaine( 2007b )pointsout,earlierworksarenotnecessarilyIntroduction xxi

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subsumedorupdatedbylaterefforts;theymayremainthebestdocumentation ofanearlierperiodandthereforemaydemandconsultationalongsidemore recenteditions.Readingprefatorymaterialallowstheresearchertodetermine thecoverageofagivenwork. Anotherpathacrossthebibliographiclandscapeisthroughtheroleof publishers.Acountry ’ searlyhistoryofpublicationmayfollowaknown institutionalsequence,frequentlybeginningwithcolonialgovernmentprinting (forexample,Mozambique 1854 ;17seealsothearchivalmicrofilmcollections offormerBritishcolonialgovernmentpublicationsintheAfricanStudies AssociationoftheUnitedKingdomseries Governmentpublicationsrelatingto Africancountriespriortoindependence ),orreligiousmissionssuchasthose documentedinthe Records,1799 – 1920 (ChurchMissionarySociety 1960 ). WhenAfricangovernmentsandmissionsreplacedandsoldtheirprinting presses,insomecaseslocalentrepreneursinitiatedprivatepublishingsuchas theOnitshamarketliteratureofNigeria ’ sIgbospeakingarea,wherereaders newlyliterateinEnglishwereeagertobuyinexpensivebooks(Obiechina 1973 ; seeforexampleNwosu 196018).Elsewhere,governmentspromotedliteracyin indigenouslanguageswhilemaintainingcontrolovercontent,asforexample thecolonialgovernmentdidwithShonaandNdebelewriting,throughthe SouthernRhodesiaAfricanLiteratureBureau(laterknownastheZimbabwe LiteratureBureau),createdin1954aspartoftheNativeAffairsDepartment (Krog 2009 ). Asnotedabove,acomprehensivesurveyofAfricanstudiesreference resourcesisbeyondthescopeofasemester-lengthcourseoranarticle(for exemplaryefforts,seeKagan 2005 ;Zell 2006b ;andMcIlwaine 2007a ).Key resourcesforbeginninglibraryresearchinAfricanstudiesincludethesethree titlesaswellas AfricaSouthoftheSahara ,anannualprintencyclopedia publishedsince1971,19whichAfricanaLibrariansCouncilmembers unanimouslythoughinformallyagreedwasthe ‘ desertisland ’ reference resourcetheywouldrecommendforgeneraluse.TheonlineEconomist IntelligenceUnit20database(withitsextensiveprintbackrun)isanother extremelyusefulresourceforbeginningaresearchprojectinanareathat touchesonpoliticsoreconomy.Onefunctionitserves,asdo AfricaResearch Bulletin and AfricaConfidential21(thoughthereareindependentreasonsfor carefulconsiderationofeach),isasanewsdigestthatcanprovidearesearcher withmultiplestartingpoints(specificdates,events,people,organizationsand places)formoredirectedreadingonhistoricaleventsnotindexedbyother means. Afterselectingandconsultingpromisingreferencesources,thebestnext stepintacklinganewlibraryresearchsubjectistorefertothelibrarycatalogue. Familiaritywithlocalcataloguefeatureshelpsinmanysmallways(for example,convenientlyprovidingrecordsinyourpreferredcitationformat, sendinglistsofitemstoyouremail,ortextingbooklocationsandplace referencestoyourmobilephone)beyondsimplyfindingbooksinthestacks. 17BoletimdoGovernodaProvinciadeMocambique < http://ufdc.ufl.edu/UF00095049 >18MissCordeliaintheRomanceofDestiny < http://ufdc.ufl.edu/AA00004295 >19NowavailableaspartofRoutledge ’ sEuropaWorldonline< http://www.europaworld.com >20EconomistIntelligenceUnit< http://www.eiu.com/ >21AfricaConfidential< http://www.africa-confidential.com >xxii Introduction

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Whileuptohalfofsearchesareforfindingknownitems(Tyckoson 1997 :11), thecatalogueisalsoapowerfuldiscoverytoolforidentifyingunknownrelevant materialsbydevelopingnewresearchpathways,aprocessmademore manageablebyusingthesearchnotestechniquedescribedabove.Being attentivetosubjecttermsinthemostrelevantrecordsretrievedcanyield additionalmaterialsonthetopicthatmaynotbepublishedwiththesame termsonyourlist(suchaswordsinotherlanguages,equivalenttermsthatvary overtime,orusagesthatdifferacrossdisciplines).Thisispossiblebecause cataloguershaveassignedrecordswithuniformheadings. Cataloguing ‘ isaprocessof adding termsthatare standardized “ ontopof, ” or inadditionto,thewordsprovidedbythebookitself ’ (Mann 2005 :23). Becauseinmanylibrariessubjectclassificationsareemployedtoshelvebooks inopenstacks,browsingbecomesfruitfulandallowsserendipitousdiscoveries ( ibid .:46 – 64).WhileTyckosonestimatesthat90percentofresearchcontent remainselusivefromcataloguesearches( 1997 :11),improvementshavesince enhancedmanyrecordswithchaptertitlesandauthors,forexample,e-books areagrowingportionofmanylibrarycollectionsandGoogleBooksSearch providesanautomatedfull-textindexofscannedtitles(Darnton 2009 :33). Thecatalogueisapowerfulresearchtoolbecauseitisacombinationof technical,socialandindividualeffortsthatdonotnecessarilyleadtoperfector perfectlytransparentresults:Fortheindividualscholar,academicresearchmayseemtobeasolitary, lonelypursuit,whethersheissiftingthroughvolumesofdecades-oldjournals inthestacksorsurfingtheWeb.Infact,successfulresearchdependsonthe combined(ifnotalwayscooperative)effortsofwidelydispersedpeople,often unknowntooneanother,including:authors,publishers,indexers,catalogers, referencelibrarians,aswellastheresearchersthemselves.Decisions,policies, andpracticesofanyofthesemanyactorsaffectthesuccessofresearch (Walsh 2004 :14).Forscarcelytreatedtopics,localresourcesmaynotbeavailableorwillnot suffice,soresearcherscansearchmulti-library ‘ meta-catalogue ’ databasessuch asWorldCat,22thecataloguesofinstitutionalconsortia,ormembershipgroups suchastheCenterforResearchLibrariesforleadsonaccessalternativessuch asinter-libraryloan. ThestrategiccycleIrecommendconcludeswithaconsultationofacademic journalindexes,includingspecialistindexesthatmaysimplyidentifyrelevant scholarlyworkaswellasconvenientintegratedindexdatabasesthatprovide accesstoentirefull-textarticles.Academicfacultymaynotneedanyother resourcesthanjournalindexes(possiblyaccessedviaaGooglesearch)iftheir fieldreliesprimarilyonjournalpublications(forexample,somephysical sciences).Theymayevenforgettoadvisestudentstofollowthelibraryresearch pathwayoutlinedhere.Asfull-textresourceshavebecomeincreasingly accessiblebymeansofindexdatabases,theallureofskippingdirectlytothe onlinejournalliteraturehasgrown.However,inexperiencedresearchersmay getlostinthespecificityofscholarlyarticlesbeforetheyhavefullyintegrateda sufficientlybroadunderstandingoftheirfieldofstudy.Tosimplyaccessa 22WorldCat< www.worldcat.org/ >Introduction xxiii

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knownarticle,JSTOR23(whichincludesanexcellentsetofAfricanstudies journalsinitsdatabase)maybethebestfirstplacetogo.However,inmany casesthereisaten-yearembargoonarticlesinJSTOR.Forthisreasonand becausefull-textsearchesinJSTORdependontheaccuracyofOptical CharacterRecognition(OCR)software(theoftencitedfigureof98percent accuracyproduceserrorsintwoorthreewordsperpage),Idonotrecommend itasaprimarysearchtool. Studentsshouldbecomefamiliarwithavarietyofgeneraluse,comprehensiveordiscipline-specific,commerciallydistributedjournalindexdatabases. ManyincludegoodcoverageofAfricanarticlesandprovideinterfacefeatures thathelptobuildgoodsearches.SuchtoolsincludeEBSCOAcademicSearch Premier,24CambridgeScientificAbstracts25(withtheLinguisticsand LanguageBehaviorAbstractsandPAISInternational),ProQuestDissertations &Theses,26theWebofKnowledge27interfaceto,forexample,theSocial ScienceCitationIndexandPeriodicalsIndexOnline.28Anyofthese commercialproductsprovideaccesstotheirindexthesauriofdescriptorterms, whichworkanalogouslywithsubjectheadingsinthelibrarycataloguetoadd relevanttermsnotaccessibletosoftwaresuchasOCRthatmerelyreproduces termsthepublicationitselfprovidestoreaders(Mann 2005 :66 – 7).I recommendthatsearchesintheselargedatabasesshouldbecomplementedby additionalworkwithAfrica-specific,humanspecialist-preparedbibliographic toolssuchasAfricanStudiesAbstracts(LeidenUniversity),29theUSLibrary ofCongressQuarterlyIndexofAfricanPeriodicalLiterature30andAfrica Bibliography31(InternationalAfricanInstitute,IAI). AfricaBibliography has beenavailableasanannualprintsupplementtotheIAI ’ sjournal Africa since 1984,butthisyearitisalsoavailableonlineasasearchable,consolidated bibliography.Oneofmystudentslastyearnotedthatthepre-releaseversionof thisdatabasehadbecomeherpreferredjournalindex. Employingastrategiccombinationofseveralscholarly,specialisttoolssuch asdisciplinary,regionalortopicalbibliographiesalongwithoneormore comprehensive,commercialjournalindexdatabasesisadvantageousinthatthe userbenefitsfromtheirdifferentapproaches.Foranthropology, AnthropologicalLiteratureisproducedbytheTozzerLibraryatHarvard University ’ sPeabodyMuseumofArchaeologyandEthnologyandthe AnthropologicalIndexattheRoyalAnthropologicalInstituteinLondon(their contentsarecombinedbytheAnthropologyPlusdatabase).32Theseacademic projectsuseexpertstoconsideranddescribeeachentry,assessingscholarly importandwritingabstracts.Whiletheirinterfacesmaybelessfriendlyandit maytaketimetolearnhowtobuildaneffectivesearchwiththese,effortsare 23JSTOR< www.jstor.org/ >24Academicsearchpremier< http://www.ebscohost.com/ >25CambridgeScientificAbstracts< http://www.csa.com/ >26ProQuestDissertationsandTheses< http://proquest.umi.com/ >27WebofKnowledge< http://wokinfo.com/ >28PeriodicalsIndexOnline< http://pio.chadwyck.co.uk >29AfricanStudiesAbstracts< http://www.ascleiden.nl/ >30QuarterlyIndexofAfricanPeriodicalLiterature< http://lcweb2.loc.gov/misc/qsihtml/ >31AfricaBibliography< http://africabibliography.cambridge.org/ >32AnthropologyPlus < http://www.oclc.org/us/en/support/documentation/firstsearch/databases/ dbdetails/details/AnthropologyPlus.htm >xxiv Introduction

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rewardedbytheinsightstheymakepossiblethroughhuman-created descriptiverecords.Incontrast,forexample,AnthroSource33representsthe benefitsoflarge-scalecommercialtechnology,leveragingtheresourcesof publisherWiley-Blackwelltoindexeverytermineachofoveraquartermillion full-textarticlesfromeveryAmericanAnthropologicalAssociationpublication includedinthisservice.Thedatabaseisaccessiblethrougharichlyfeatured interfacethatcanlinktheusertoaphraseortermasitwasprintedonthepage incontext.Thereisnoonebestindex,butratherresearchersshouldemploy severalrelevantproductsthatcomplementoneanother ’ sstrengthstoenable effectivesearchingandresultsthatnosinglesourcecanprovide. Itisunlikelythatanyone ’ slibraryresearchwillbecompleteatthisstageof themodelunlesstheprojectisverystraightforward.Theprocessdescribed aboveisintendedtobeiterative,ratherthanmerelyrepetitive,honingexisting andbuildingnewsearcheswitheachre-entryintothesetofavailabletoolsand resources.Individualneedswilldeterminewhichadditionalgeneral,specialist, discipline-specificandotherresourcesshouldbeconsideredastheproject develops.Mann( 2005 )providesmanyideasforadditionalpotentialdirections, includinggovernmentdocuments,newspapers,archives,etc.ForAfrican studies,tonameafewexamples,uniquematerialsmaybefoundintheAluka34databaseofmaterialsrelatingto StrugglesforFreedominSouthernAfrica ,in microfilmedarchivalcollectionscollectedbytheCooperativeAfricana MaterialsProject35andintherarebooksandmanuscriptscollectionsof academiclibrariesspecializinginAfricanmaterials(manyofwhicharebeing selectivelydigitizedforfree,public,openaccessthroughouttheworld).36Academicdissertationsareanothersomewhatneglectedsourceofdetailed literaturereviewsthatmayleadtocollectionsofuniquematerials.Graduate studentsinparticularmayfinddissertationsusefulfordevelopinganunderstandingoftheoreticalapproachesovertime,recognizingschoolsofthought andintellectualgenealogies,andgainingasenseofhowconceptsaresharedor alternativelyformulatedbydifferentscholars.Itmaybeproductiveforthe studenttospeakwithaspecialistlibrarianatthispointintheprocesstodiscuss researcheffortstodateandconsiderfurtheroptions.Manylibrarianscanalso provideassistancewithmanagingbibliographiccitationsthroughsoftware packagesthatarelicensedtotheentireuniversitycommunity. Themoderninformationlandscapeiscomplex;theAfricanstudies informationenvironmentisevenmoredifficulttonavigatethanmost (Zell 2002 ;Walsh 2004 ).Thegrowingbutthornyresearchandpublishing environmentinAfricaitselfcontributestothedifficultyofscholarlyresearchin thisarea(seeZell 2001 ;Mlambo 2006 ):ThatisnottosaythatlittleisbeingpublishedinAfrica.Indeedagreatdealof verygoodmaterialisregularlypublished,buttheviabilityofpublishers 33AnthroSource< http://www.anthrosource.net/ >34Aluka< www.aluka.org/ >35TheCooperativeAfricanaMaterialsProject(CAMP)wasfoundedin1963asajointeffortby researchlibrariesthroughouttheworldandtheChicago-basedCenterforResearchLibraries < http://www.crl.edu/area-studies/camp >36MyworkwiththeGeorgeA.SmathersDigitalLibraryCenterattheUniversityofFloridahas providedonlineaccesstoseveralcollectionsbasedonrarebooksandmanuscriptholdingsinthe library ’ sAfricanStudiesCollections(seeNemmers 2004 ;Reboussin 2009 2011a 2011b ).Introduction xxv

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continuestobethreatenedbygeneralresourceshortages,instability,poorly developeddistribution,anddominationofmarketsbytransnational publisherswithlittleinterestinareassuchasAfricanlanguageimprints.The effectivereachofnewtechnologieswithinthecontinenthasalsobeen limited,crampingthevisibilityofAfricanpublishersandwriters (Limb 2007 :vii).ForscholarsinterestedinreadingAfricanpublishedresearchand incorporatingAfricanperspectivesintotheirwork,therearemanypotential brokenlinksinachainfromtheconductofresearch,writing,publishing, distributionandaccesstosuchmaterialsinlibraries.37If,infact,African producedmaterialsdoarriveinoneofthefewlibrariesthatcollectand catalogueAfrican-publishedacademicmaterials,accessmayremaindifficult; theymayrequirespecialtreatment,arelocatedseparatelyfromgeneral collections,orarenotwellcatalogued.Africanbooksandjournalspresent manychallenges:theymaybewritteninlesserknownlanguageswithout readilyavailabletranslationsoruseorthographicscriptswithoutstandardized electronic(i.e.Unicode)equivalents.Authors ’ namesmayuseunfamiliar conventionsormaybefoundinmanyversionsbasedondiffering transliterationpractices(Walsh 2004 :15 – 21).Publishinginformationmay notbeavailableinafamiliarlanguage;serialpublicationmaybelateor documentedinconsistently(withnamevariations,problemswithvolumeand issuenumbering,orpagination).So,evenwhenAfricanresearchmaterialsare collectedbylibrarieswherescholarsmightbebetterpositionedtodiscover, recognizeandpromotetheirsignificance( ibid .:11),theymayremainless visiblewithinthescholarlyarchivethanotherresources.Asaresult,Africanists needtobebettertrainedandmorepersistentwithlibraryresearchrelativeto theircolleaguesinotherareas. Additionaldifficultiesintheresearchprocessareposedbythebroadscope ofinterestsinthehighlyinterdisciplinaryfieldofAfricanstudies.Facultyand graduatestudentsmakechallengingdemandsontheirlibrariestocollectand provideaccesstoextremelydiverseformatsandsourcesofinformation.Video andaudiorecordings,photographs,uniqueandreproducedmanuscript collections,greyliteraturesuchasconferencepapers,non-governmental organizationreportsanddigitaldatafilesarerelativelycommonrequests.Even officialnationalgovernmentdocumentsmayhaveextremelylimiteddistributioninAfrica,whereitmaybeveryexpensivetocollectevenreasonably comprehensivecollectionsofsuchkeyresourcesascensusdocuments.The aboveformatsdonottouchuponephemerasuchaselectionmaterials,posters, politicalpamphlets,artandpopularcultureitems,children ’ stoys,graffiti, advertising,orsportsmemorabiliaand ‘ fan ’ paraphernaliasuchasthepopular decoratedhardhatsand vuvuzela hornsrelatingtothe2010FIFAWorldCup soccer(football)tournamentheldinSouthAfrica,whichdrewtheresearch attentionofmanyAfricanists(seeAlegi 2010 ;Koonyaditse 2010 ).Identifying andaccessingunusualformatsandscarcematerials,evenwhentheyareheldin theuser ’ sownlibrary,mayrequiregreaterexpertise(andpossiblyalibrarian ’ s guidance)astheymostlikelywouldnotbedescribedattheindividualitemlevel 37RemarkableimprovementsinaccesstoAfricanpublicationsintheUSandelsewherehaveresulted fromthecollaborativeeffortsoftheAfricanBooksCollective< http://www.africanbookscollective. com >.xxvi Introduction

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inthecatalogue,butratherascollections(asismostcommonformanuscripts andarchives,althoughdigitizationrequiresitemlevelmetadataforonline access). Themediationandassistanceofalibrariancanbeacriticalelementinthe libraryresearchprocess.Scholarshipisasocialprocessthatdependsonthe contributionsofmanyparticipants.Goodpracticeindocumentingone ’ s researchanddatasourcesisnecessary,asisthemaintenanceofsufficiently resourcedarchivesthatcanmanageandprovideaccesstowhateverresources thatacademicresearchandscholarshipdemands.Asthesedemandshave increasedandtheinformationenvironmenthasbecomemorecomplex,the needtoimprovetrainingininformationliteracyforAfricanstudiesresearchers hasalsobecomemoreevident.Animportantbenefitofincreasedinteraction betweenacademicsandlibrariansisthatopportunitiesforcollaboration multiplyaslibrarianrolesinthescholarlyprocessbecomemorefamiliarand betterappreciated. AfricanscholarsinAfricamaythemselveslacktheresourcestoparticipate fullyindebatesaboutissuesandprocessesthataffectthem,somanyAfricanists outsidethecontinentfeelanethicalobligationtoensurethatAfricanvoicesare heardanddocumentedthroughtheirownscholarlycommunications.African bookdonationprogrammesandfundingaredwindling.Giventhemanynew avenuesprovidedbyelectronicdistributionofinformation,studentsand facultycancontributeinsomesmallmeasurebymakingaconsciouseffortto deposittheirownworkinopenaccessdigitalinstitutionalrepositoriesand otherpubliclyavailableonlinearchivesthatensurereliableaccesstoresearchof valuetoAfricanswhereAfricanscholarsthemselvesmaylackaccesstopaid subscriptionresourcesordonatedmaterials.Inthiscontext,Iconsidera discussionofthelegalandmoralrightsofbothusersandcreatorsofdigital informationtobeanessentialpartofclassroomdiscussionsaboutAfrican researchresources.Inthisandmanyways,Ihopethestudentsinmyclasswill begintothinkofthemselvesasnotonlyconsumersofAfricaninformation,but alsowillconsidertheeffectoftheirownparticipationininformation productionincooperationwithAfricansasaresult. Conclusion WhilethefewavailablecoursesinAfricanstudieslibraryresearchmethods usedtofocusonthetechnicaluseofafewscarceresources,theinformation environmenthaschangedagreatdealinrecentyears.Therearemanypotential resourcesavailabletoAfricanstudiesresearchers,butthesecanbedifficultto identify,evaluateanduseeffectivelywithoutemployingastrategicapproachto libraryresearch.Manylibraryusersreporthighskillslevelsatsearchingfor informationonline(throughsurveys,forexample),butbehaviouralresearch amongstudentspursuinglibraryresearchindicatesthattheirsearchskillsare bettersuitedtoeverydayonlinetasks.Studentsbenefitfromtraininginlibrary researchmethodsandanimprovedawarenessofscholarlysearchtechniques, andthereareindicationsthatthecompletionofaninformationliteracycourse lowersattritionratesamongfirst-yearstudents.ForAfricanstudies,every aspectoflibrarycollectionsinsupportofthesehighlyinterdisciplinary academicprogrammespresentsgreaterchallengesthandomaterialsinother areas:fromtheircreationasresearchprojects,thechallengesofAfricanIntroduction xxvii

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publishing,limiteddistributionandmarketing,thedifficultiesoflanguagesand othercataloguingissues,tothebroadrangeofformatsofinteresttoscholars.In thisessay,Ihaveattemptedtosummarizeandprovideasenseoftheapproach thatItakeinmylibraryresearchmethodscourseforgraduatestudentswiththe hopethatthesesimplestrategiesandconceptscanbeintegratedintoother Africanstudiescoursesmorebroadlyintheinterestofbetterlibraryresearch andscholarlycommunication.ACRL(2006) CharacteristicsofProgramsofInformationLiteracythatIllustrateBestPractices:aguideline ChicagoIL:AmericanLibraryAssociation,AssociationofCollegeandResearchLibraries. Africaresearchbulletin.Political,social,andculturalseries .Oxford:BlackwellPublishers,1992 – AfricanStudiesAssociationoftheUnitedKingdom(n.d.) GovernmentPublicationsRelatingtoAfrican CountriesPriortoIndependence .EastArdsley(WestYorkshire):MicroformAcademicPublishersLtd. Agar,M.(1980) TheProfessionalStranger:aninformalintroductiontoethnography .NewYorkNY: AcademicPress. Alegi,P.(2010) AfricanSoccerscapes:howacontinentchangedtheworld ’ sgame .AthensOH:Ohio UniversityPress. Angello,C.(2010) ‘ Theawarenessanduseofelectronicinformationsourcesamonglivestock researchersinTanzania ’ Journalofinformationliteracy 4(2):6 – 22. Applegate,R.(2009) ‘ Thelibraryisforstudying:studentpreferencesforstudyspace ’ Journalof AcademicLibrarianship 35(4):341 – 6. Armstrong,W.H.(1978) WarriorinTwoCamps:ElyS.Parker,uniongeneralandSenecachief .Syracuse NY:SyracuseUniversityPress. Asher,A.D.andL.M.Duke(forthcoming2011) ‘ Searchingforanswers:studentresearchbehaviorat IllinoisWesleyanUniversity ’ inL.M.DukeandA.D.Asher(eds), CollegeLibrariesandStudent Culture:whatwenowknow .ChicagoIL:AmericanLibraryAssociation. Ashlund,S.(ed.)(1993) INTERCHI ’ 93:conferenceproceedings:bridgesbetweenworlds .Conferenceon HumanFactorsinComputingSystems,INTERACT ’ 93andCHI ’ 93,Amsterdam,the Netherlands,24 – 9April1993.NewYorkNY:AssociationforComputingMachinery. Avison,D.andM.D.Myers(1995) ‘ Informationsystemsandanthropology:ananthropological perspectiveonITandorganizationalculture ’ InformationTechnology&People 8(3):43 – 56. Badke,W.(2008) ‘ Arationaleforinformationliteracyasacredit-bearingdiscipline ’ Journalof InformationLiteracy 2(1):1 – 22. Barry,C.A.(1997) ‘ Informationskillsforanelectronicworld:trainingdoctoralresearchstudents ’ JournalofInformationScience 23(3):225 – 38. Baudino,F.,C.J.UryandS.G.Park(eds)(2010) BrickandClickLibraries:proceedingsofanacademic librarysymposium .MaryvilleMO:NorthwestMissouriStateUniversity. Beagle,D.(1999) ‘ Conceptualizinganinformationcommons ’ JournalofAcademicLibrarianship 25(2): 82 – 9. Bennett,S.(2005) LibraryasPlace:rethinkingroles,rethinkingspace .CLIRPub.129.WashingtonDC: CouncilonLibraryandInformationResources. Bennett,S.,K.MatonandL.Kervin(2008) ‘ The “ digitalnatives ” debate:acriticalreviewofevidence ’ BritishJournalofEducationalTechnology 39(5):775 – 86. Bentley,R.,T.Rodden,P.Sawyer etal. (1992) ‘ Ethnographically-informedsystemsdesignforair trafficcontrol ’ in ProceedingsoftheConferenceonComputer-supportedCo-operativeWork:sharing Perspectives(CSCW ‘ 92) .NewYorkNY:ACMPress. Bernard,H.R.(2011) ResearchMethodsinAnthropology:qualitativeandquantitativeapproaches LanhanMA:AltaMiraPress. Birx,H.J.(ed.)(2010) 21stCenturyAnthropology:areferencehandbook .ThousandOaksCA:Sage. Bisbrouck,M.(ed.)(2001) LibraryBuildingsinaChangingEnvironment:proceedingsoftheeleventh seminaroftheIFLAsectioninlibrarybuildingsandequipment,Shanghai,China,14 – 18August1999 Munich:K.G.Saur. Bishop,A.(2010) ‘ CLIRinauguratesworkshopsonundergraduateresearchpractices ’ CLIRIssues 72. Blin,F.(2008) ‘ 25yearsofacontinuousnationalpolicy:informationliteracynetworkinginhigher educationinFrance ’ ,inJ.Lau(ed.). InformationLiteracy:internationalperspectives .Munich: K.G.Saur. Bodley,J.H.(1999) VictimsofProgress .4thedition.MountainViewCA:MayfieldPublishingCo.xxviii Introduction

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Bridges,L.M.(2008) ‘ Whoisnotusingthelibrary?Acomparisonofundergraduateacademic disciplinesandlibraryuse ’ portal:LibrariesandtheAcademy 8(2):187 – 96. Broadus,R.N.(1987) ‘ Informationneedsofhumanitiesscholars:astudyofrequestsmadeatthe NationalHumanitiesCenter ’ LibraryandInformationScienceResearch 9:113 – 29. Brown,C.M.(1999) ‘ Informationseekingbehaviorofscientistsintheelectronicinformationage: astronomers,chemists,mathematicians,andphysicists ’ JournaloftheAmericanSocietyforInformation Science 50:929 – 43. Bryant,J.E.(2007) ‘ AnethnographicstudyofuserbehaviourinOpen3atthePilkingtonLibrary, LoughboroughUniversity ’ ,MAthesis,LoughboroughUniversity. Bryant,J.E.(2009) ‘ Whatarestudentsdoinginourlibrary?Ethnographyasamethodofexploring libraryuserbehaviour ’ LibraryandInformationResearch 33(103):3 – 9. Bryant,J.E.,G.MatthewsandG.Walton(2009) ‘ Academiclibrariesandsocialandlearningspace:a casestudyofLoughboroughUniversityLibrary,UK ’ JournalofLibrarianshipandInformationScience 41(1):7 – 18. Cardwell,C.andC.Boff(2010) ‘ CreatingthecreditILcourseinauniversitysetting ’ inC.V.Hollister (ed.), BestPracticesforCredit-BearingInformationLiteracyCourses .ChicagoIL:AssociationofCollege andResearchLibraries. Cardinall,A.W.(1924) GoldCoastLibrary .London:F.Edwards. Cardinall,A.W.(1970) BibliographyoftheGoldCoast .WestportCT:NegroUniversitiesPress. CARLI(2010) ‘ Connectinglibrariesandusers:anthropologistshelpinglibrariansmeet21stcentury challenges ’ ,ConferenceProgramMay14andMay21,2010.DePaulUniversity,Chicagoand IllinoisWesleyanUniversity,Bloomington.ConsortiumofAcademicandResearchLibrariesin Illinois,< http://www.carli.illinois.edu/mem-serv/mem-train/100514pswg.html >, accessed27May2011. Carlson,S.(2007) ‘ Ananthropologistinthelibrary:theU.ofRochestertakesacloselookatstudentsin thestacks ’ TheChronicleofHigherEducation 53(50):A26,17August. Carlson,S.(2009) ‘ IntheU.ofRochester ’ slibrary,studentsceaselesslyredesigntheirstudyspace ’ Buildings&Grounds [ ChronicleofHigherEducation blogentryfor28July28],< http://chronicle.com/ blogPost/In-the-U-of-Rochesters-Li/7499/ >,accessed27May2011. Chilimo,W.L.,P.NgulubeandC.Stilwell(2011) ‘ Informationseekingpatternsandtelecentre operations:acaseofselectedruralcommunitiesinTanzania ’ Libri 61(1):37 – 49. Chrzastowski,T.E.andL.Joseph(2006) ‘ Surveyinggraduateandprofessionalstudents ’ perspectives onlibraryservices,facilitiesandcollectionsattheUniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign:does subjectdisciplinecontinuetoinfluencelibraryuse? ’ IssuesinScience&TechnologyLibrarianship 45 (Winter). ChurchMissionarySociety(1960) Records,1799 – 1920 .London:KodakLtd.,RecordakDivision. CILIP(2011) ‘ Informationliteracy:definition ’ ,< http://www.cilip.org.uk/get-involved/advocacy/ learning/information-literacy/pages/definition.aspx >,accessed7June2011. Coulon,A.(1999) Penser,classer,catgoriser:l ’ efficacitdel ’ enseignementdelamthodologiedanslespremiers cyclesuniversitaires.Lecasdel ’ UniversitdeParis8 .Saint-Denis:Associationinternationalede rechercheethnomthodologique. Cox,C.N.andE.B.Lindsay(eds)(2008) InformationLiteracyInstructionHandbook .ChicagoIL: AssociationofCollegeandResearchLibraries. Cutler,M.(1896) ‘ Twofundamentals ’ LibraryJournal 21(October):446 – 9. Daly,E.(2011) ‘ Isthelibrarypartofthepicture?Askinghonorsundergradstodescribetheirresearch processes ’ College&ResearchLibrariesNews 72(7):408 – 11,419. Darnton,R.(2009) TheCaseforBooks:past,present,andfuture .NewYorkNY:PublicAffairs. Deese-Roberts,S.andK.Keating(2000) LibraryInstruction:apeertutoringmodel .EnglewoodNJ: LibrariesUnlimited. Delcore,H.D.,J.MulloolyandM.Scroggins(2009) TheLibraryStudyatFresnoState .Fresno:Institute ofPublicAnthropology,CaliforniaStateUniversity,< http://www.csufresno.edu/anthropology/ipa/ >, accessed24June2011. Dent,V.andL.Yannotta(2005) ‘ AruralcommunitylibraryinUganda:astudyofitsuseandusers ’ Libri 55(1):39 – 55. Dent,V.F.(2006) ‘ Modellingtheruralcommunitylibrary:characteristicsoftheKitengesaLibraryin ruralUganda ’ NewLibraryWorld 107(1/2):16 – 30. Dent-Goodman,V.(2011) ‘ Applyingethnographicresearchmethodsinlibraryandinformation settings ’ Libri 61(1):1 – 11. Dewey,B.I.(2005) ‘ Theembeddedlibrarian ’ ResourceSharingandInformationNetworks 17(1):5 – 7. Duke,L.M.andA.D.Asher(eds)(2011) CollegeLibrariesandStudentCulture:whatwenowknow ChicagoIL:AmericanLibraryAssociation.Introduction xxix

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