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JAE BLACK
INTRODUCTION
Man's greatest periods of change could be classified as
the discovery of fire, the industrial revolution and travel in
space. The industrial revolution's relative impact on modern
society is the greatest of the three. The impact has been growth.
Architecture has been the means of enclosing all this growth and
even directing it. Industrial production facilities and the
mass production concept represent that architectural enclosure
having the greatest contact with this source of change and
growth.
The industrial processes of the early twentieth century
were stimulated by several very important factors. Refinement
and implementation of oil and electricity were two critical
sources of energy. The steam engine, railroad, improved steel
production and implementation were factors that did work for
man and increased his ability to produce. The United States'
economy was finally coming to a level of maturation that
allowed some degree of expectation and control on the part of
people and government. A largely democratic and capitalistic
society and government formed the open framework for monitoring
and regulating the industrial revolution.
A thorough discussion of industrial revolution and it's
manifestation would be a very large undertaking. This paper
will limit it's discussion to some of those factors that most
directly affect the industrial building. Like all architecture,
these industrial buildings had a very large impact on many
2
people and people on architecture. In mention of labor,
however, most developments concerning people in factories were
also in the name of increased efficiency. Mass production
theory, growth, philosophy, technology and the market economy
will be discussed. These factors are representative of some of
the governing factors in factory design. A general description
of various building types shall show some of the concerns and
actual conditions of factory buildings prior to the 1920's.
DEVELOPMENTAL FACTORS OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION FACILITIES
THEORY AND APPLICATION
During the middle of the nineteenth century, the pro-
ducer,consumer, and product interacted very closely. With the
close of the nineteenth century came a new philosophy of pro-
duction. Increased scale of industry and greater awareness of
efficiency in mass production required that the laborer special-
ize in some area of production and thereby have very little
contact with the final product. The worker no longer produced
an article having real working qualities. The article had to
be produced according to specified standards, as a series of
parts. Quality was now seldom a concern for the worker, his
control had been eliminated. Previously the worker's part in
the production of an article was apparent, and he could not
escape a personal responsibility for quality.
Mass production theory had been understood for quite some
time as being the means for more efficient production of consumer
goods. Yet experimentation could not be undertaken by small
organizations. Investment at this period was limited to those
large companies that had either the flexibility or the assurance
in their directionthat they could survive any loss through fail-
ure. Good financial backing was the most important of all the
factors. This could have been in terms of banking, stocks, and
securities. A sideline product would be retained that would
absorb most losses.
Once major experimentation by large companies showed that
investments in mass production application could produce a very
favorable profit, theory became practice. The advancement in
manufacturing techniques, improved machinery, increased avail-
ability of power, ease and economy of transportation and avail-
ability of labor made small plants a possibility. College edu-
cated management personnel became more interested in smaller
firms and this added greatly to their productivity. It took
time, but the smaller firms gradually developed a very favorable
size of the industrial fabric of the United States. As of the
mid 1920's, "It is estimated that 45% of the wage earners in
manufacturing industries are employed by companies with 250
workers or less. These companies also produce about 45% of the
products measured in dollar value." 1
Application of mass production became mandatory to keep
up with the competition. Implimentation of mass production
evolved a more favorable product environment for the consumer.
Relative prices of goods were reduced and there evolved many
more goods for the consumer to choose from. As the consumer's
diversity of choice and buying power increased, so increased the
diversity of the company. With the process understood, it was
up to the company to find the products for the market or the
markets for the products. The market was to become the major
factor in industrial cash flow.
A predictable, controllable, and increasing industrial
cash flow was the right formula for growth of the industrial
production concept. Established products generated the poten-
tial for associated products. The market structure permitted
the introduction of new goods and development of new markets.
As profits and technology increased, the manufacturing concerns
sought to introduce production facilities in many more areas.
Centralized specialty production, though still valid, did not
generally reach enough of the markets to allow organizational
and profit flexibility. It became necessary and beneficial for
companies to move their production and major distribution faci-
lities to areas more directly or better associated with market
concerns. The exact location of new facilities was contigent
upon the compliment of several factors, as listed.
1. Market: Most directly this is product sales,however a
very important part was in securing new markets,
and finding associated product lines.
2. Capital: Cost of capital was the governing factor for
a good profit margin and local investment
put investment profits into communities.
3. Materials: Availability and cost were the most important.
4. Process: This pertained to the availability of machinery,
5. Labor: This varied according to requirements and general-
ly standards were set for either high or low.
quality positions.
6. Power: This pertained to whether there were municipal
utilities available and at what costs.
7. Transportation facilities: This concern was for cost,
availability, type, and diversity.
To assure success,.it was necessary to find the best combi-
nation, of factors. This meant compromise on some points, in
most cases. Knowledge of conditions in the territory and careful
study was necessary. Anticipation of changes in any of the asso-
ciated factors was the essential part of maintaining the control
of cash flow. Capital availability, market fluctuations, and
technological advances were the most important of all the
factors governing growth.
It was necessary for big business companies to pioneer
and promote development in industrial processes, mainly due to
their access to capital and markets. However their contact
with the people was probably one of the most critical areas of
development. The big companies represent the first real intro-
duction of a mass production concept into the daily lives of
most people. They reached the consumer and the employees.
Both of these groups were larger than ever contacted before, by
any group outside of governmental concerns.
Philosophically, the influence of the machine on man's
culture and society had been a serious controversy. Mass pro-
duction, machines, hordes of workers unknown by the employers
were elements of the time. They stimulated a great deal of
critism and conflict. "We are hardly aware of the silent work-
ing influence of machinery upon the morals of the world...
Communism, which means the destruction of labor, cannot coexist
with machinery Its use requires too much competition, both
social and industrial, to admit of communism. The states, there-
fore, devoted to industries which require the use of machines
to a large extent are safe from the inroads of communism and
communistic socialism." 2
The situation could no longer be considered a philosophical
one. Problems required solutions and attitudes had to change
at all levels. Some of the changes came naturally and others
were required to exist.
Philosophical questioning did little to stem the impact and
growth of the industrial facilities. Growth was imperative and
conflicting forces were at work influencing the relocation and
growth of new industries. The national effort for World War
one was largely concentrated in the industrial area. "The tre-
mendous demands made upon American industry for the production
of all kinds of goods to forward the war program brought about
a demand for expansion of existing plants in metropolitan and
other highly industrialized areas. The need to utilize manage-
ment talent in these plants and areas was almost imperative." 3
Difficulties were experienced with quality standards, labor,
and governmental control. These factors made expansion of urban
plants difficult. A general lack of control, management, and
commitment towards growth and expansion inhibited growth.
This period of urban conflict saw development of several
important technological advancements. Communication ability
had greatly increased and it was possible to have urban leaders
monitoring rural facilities. Automobiles and all weather roads
provided the means for many more people to live farther away
from the plant and travel to work. This allowed workers to live
in areas of higher quality and still work. This aided the rural
conditions more because urban workers were generally settled
into districts that were located near the factories.
These problems, advancements, and other social and economic
forces had been at work, tending to influence the spread of
industry to semirural and rural locations. Management peo-
ple realized the great value in working with the workers to
favorably produce. Management began to closely monitor
market and economic conditions and trends. All efforts were
made to provide a system of efficiently planning and control
of as many factors as possible.
The rural environment was becoming a more favorable lo-
cation for growth. "When such locations are economically
feasible, they contribute toward a better balance of our agri-
cultural and industrial economy by enabling workers to depend
partially upon gardens, poultry and fruit of their own raising.
With this arrangement the hazards of less industrial employment
or unemployment are minimized." 4 Industrial enterprises'
presence in or near rural communities brought a new level of
economic prosperity and productivity that could be anticipated.
Crop failures and uncontrollable market conditions had been
problems that the rural individual could not control. A well
managed and growing factory became the stabilizing source of
income for many communities.
Growth to the rural areas came at a time when communities
that had considerable resources of raw materials, found the
resources depleted to the point that they could not be econom-
ically attained. Various other industries were sought after by
these communities that often had the labor, transportation, and
power facilities partially developed from the resource production.
Agencies were developed to help coordinate communities and
regions and potential industries. The National Resources
Planning Board in Washington, D.C. was set up during the first
quarter of the twentieth century to aid in the development of
regional and community planning councils. The favorable impact
of industrial enterprise upon man and society became sought after.
Attempts were made to increase the positive aspects and control
and understand the negative factors.
The industrial enterprise- mass production system promoted
a new way of thinking. The philosophical questions were still
around, but they were overshadowed to a large degree by the
prosperity that the industrial enterprise system generated.
The new concepts were discovered, developed and adopted-
some rapidly, others slowly.
"EVOLUTION OF THE MODERN BUILDING.- Many of our
industrial engineers and architects have long appreciated
that the factory buildings have either a direct or reflex
influence upon nearly every phase of the plant operations
and in some degree upon the general business as wells and
the result of their efforts, both individual and concerted
to meet every demand and need of the plant and the business
insofar as they were effected by the plant buildings, has been
a gradual evolution from the "four wall, roof and floor, dismal
factory box" to the modern, fireproofed, well-lighted, adequately
ventilated, permanent structure of today- the modern Factory
Building, designed for a special purpose, to meet specific needs
affording most comfortable and efficient work rooms and a
pleasing and attractive exterior design and finish." 5
TYPICAL BUILDING FORMS AND CONSTRUCTION TYPES
Factories represented an industry's symbol of success
and efficiency. Any sign of success brought a classification
and distinction to the industry. Specific industries had
certain specific requirements for machinery and space. Very
shortly, industries adopted various types or forms of buildings.
Studies were conducted on various buildings to find the most
favorable type. This resulted in the development of several
designs, whose cross-sectioned outlines may have been taken as
more or less indicative of the most approved forms. The follow-
ing types of buildings are ones that could be considered repre-
sentative of generally acknowledged types.
The one-story general utility building was the first of
all classified types and most commonly used. It was usually
a narrow rectangular cross sectioned building with either flat
or pitched roofs. Side windows provided the lighting and ven-
tilation and the building was generally used in a large variety
of light manufacturing applications.
The one story "saw tooth" roof configuration was used
textile and general manufacturing processes. It could respond
to any cross sectional width and provide uniform lighting due
the saw toothed glass surfaces overhead. Having the glass move-
able also provided an area of continuous ventilation.
The one story machine and heavy general manufacturing
building had a wide cross sectional area. There was a higher
central space with upper side wall sash for additional ventila-
tion and lighting. Flat or pitched roofs covered the areas on
either side of the central space.
The heavy machine, forge shop and foundry building was
similar in most respects to the previous building descrip-
tion except for a generally higher central space and an inverted
vee roof shape. This innovation improved not only lighting,but
most importantly ventilation. These buildings were usually one
story buildings.
The multi-storied building was used in.both light and
heavy industrial processes. It had a limited cross sectional
width primarily for lighting purposes. Side windows provided
the only means for lighting and ventilation. Structural limita-
tions were not a problem except in the largest applications.
Fire safety and power requirements proved to be greater problems.
There was a great deal of effort devoted to not only
building types but also to methods of construction and use of
materials. "By the concerted efforts of the engineers,engaged
in the design of such buildings, the manufacturers of the many
materials of construction, of the insurance interests of the
country through the Underwriters Association, and of the Labor
Departments of many states, there have been evolved certain
approved classes of construction for the several forms of fac-
tory buildings;..."6Several descriptions follow that delineate
construction types for the safety and efficiency of the indus-
trial facility.
Brick and timber construction was one of the first types
of construction that was used in factories. Little technology
was involved and the materials could be attained almost every-
where. It was generally known as slow-burning mill design. The
buildings could be identified by the following features, concrete
foundations, brick walls, timber columns, girders, beams,and
heavy plank floors and ceilings.
Brick and steel construction was implemented on an in-
creasing basis. Originally cast iron members were used, but
with the improvement of steel, cast iron was replaced. The steel
material was still only used for interior columns, girders, and
beams. The potential for steel use throughout the building was
not dealt with for quite some time. This type of construction
was considered "fire retardent" by many standards. Concrete
or heavy plank floors and roofs, brick, tile, or concrete cur-
tain walls formed the remainder of the enclosure.
There was a brick and steel "fire resistant" type of
building and this merely employed the use of fire resistant
materials as cover for columns, girders and beams.
Reinforced concrete was considered "fire resistant"
construction. The beam and girder or flat slab floor and
roof design had its structural work of reinforced concrete,
except the curtain walls between columns or pilasters. These
may have been of brick, hollow tile, concrete or other fire-
resistant materials.
A large number of factories were multi-storied. The
multi-storied buildings were good when the materials and
14
machines of the factories were not bulky and heavy. Various
processes were better carried out in multi-storied factories
and it provided a factory that centralized operations and
concentrated the plant, fully using the site. The nature and
extent of the plant and process governed quite a bit of the
multi-storied building forms.
CONCLUSION
One major purpose of studying industrial production
facilities, is to recognize just how little conceptual
advancement has been made. Conceptually, industrial products
are still fabricated just as they were at the start of the
first industrial revolution. Unfortunately, the associated
problems have increased exponentially. Any new system will
have to be one that grows and eliminates the problems.
Corrective action will lose it's effectiveness. It is almost
too late for corrective action now.
In reviewing the early twentieth century industrial
facilities and comparing them to today, it can be seen that
little advancement has been made in the organization of buildings
and the processes that go on in them. Working conditions have
improved, operation speeds have increased, etc., but there is
no movement to produce goods in anything other than a linear
organization.
The early factories were done primarily by engineers and
owners. Their concerns were obviously for the function and
efficiency of the facility. Architectural ornamentation seldom
interested the owners and this eliminated most architects from
designing factories. The engineers used elements of the build-
ings in their purest form. Aesthetics became of more concern
as factories grew in number and impact. Engineers and architects
began to look at elements as the held aesthetic quality on their
own. Materials were reviewed for their potential to represent
themselves, or as a series of components. An attractive
building could be designed that lacked eclectic ornamentation.
There were, of course, those engineers and architects that
had absolutely no concern for aesthetics and good design.
Materials were used in the most elementary and often inap-
propriate methods. Unfortunately, this aspect is one we
live with today. Many contemporary architects show little
concern for the real ability of materials and the information
that they can carry in a building, The thinking involved in
designing a good building is difficult. Thinking about
designing in a new framework is difficult. People will usually
reject something that is either new to them, or destroys an
ideal that they live by. Any change is difficult.
Times have not really changed a great deal. The exact
issues may be different, but we are still faced with new ways
of thinking and doing, in a world that sees success largely
feeling comfortable about the present positions of man.
Without a doubt, we are looking at the coming of a new industrial
revolution. We must start to think towards a new perspective.
Any look backwards in time must be made to gain information
about the future. If we try to understand how the first
industrial revolution changed thought, we will realize the
very simplest impact that the new revolution will have on
our lives.
The new revolution will occur primarily out of necessity.
The cost of development and technology is now so high that all
known alternatives or derivations should be explored. The
problems will be so large that only technology can aid us in
those problems. Technology that is not known will have to be
developed.
It must be remembered that the first industrial
revolution occurred due to man's ability to manipulate
more efficiently, the six basic mechanical concepts. "Yet
every machine, new or old, can be resolved into a combination
of no more than six basic mechanical elements, known to the
Greeks-and perhaps-others-a couple of centuries before Christ.
They are the pulley, the wheel and axle, the inclined plane,
the wedge, and the screw." 7 The first industrial revolution
or manipulation of these ancient concepts generated the growth
that has allowed us to exceed our natural capacities and strain
our manipulation of the concepts. The second revolution will
have to solve the problems generated due to man's overzealous
growth. New technology will undoubtedly have to generate a
new set of criteria for thinking and doing.
f j
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FOOTNOTES
1. Anderson,Arthur Industrial Management, p.47,
2. Wright,Carroll Industrial Evolution of the United States,
p.343.
3. Anderson,Arthur Industrial Management, p.46,
4. Ibid., p.46.
5. Case,Willard The Factory Buildings, p.252.
6. Ibid., p.256.
7. Walton,Harry Mechanical Movements, p.2.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Anderson,Arthur Industrial Management. The Ronald Press
Company, 1928&1942 (pp.3-53t109-306).
2. Burr,J.B. & Hyde The Great Industries of the United
States. 1873.
3. Case,Willard The Factory Buildings. Industrial Extension
Institute, 1919.
4. Gantt,H. Organizing For Work. Harcourt,Brace and Howe,
1919.
5. Gebhardt,G.F. Steam Power Plant Engineering. John
W ? y&Sons, 1928(photographs).
6. Giedion,Sigfried Space, Time and Archi t trec. i Harvar,
7. HavenGeorge Mechanical Fabrics. John Wiley&Sons,
1932(pp.763-795).
8. Hull,George Industrial Depressions. Frederick A. Stokes
Company, 1911(pp.1-21; 106-1251t66-227).
9. Kimball,Dexter Principles of Industrial Organization.
McGraw-Hill Books, 1913(pp.1-96).
10. Meyer,Henry Steam Power Plants. McGraw-Hill Books,
1912(pp.1-14:181-202).
11. Perrigo,Oscar Modern Machine Shop. Norman W. Henley
Publishers, 1917(pp.17-119).
12. Walker,P.F. Management Engineering. McGraw-Hill Books,
1924(pp.1-147).
13. Walton,Harry Mechanical Movements, Popular Science
Publishing, 1968.
14. Wright,Carroll Industrial Evolution of the United States.
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1910(pp.117-343).
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WHITE ENAMEL REFRIGERATING CO.
A. -H. Stem, Architect
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138.
MACHINE
SHOP
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141.
FACTORY OF THE DODGE MOTOR CO.
Engineer and Architect
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MACHINE SHOP OF BUSCH-SULZER BROS.
DIESEL
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142.
FACTORY
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COUNT
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Ml(YI'QfI
Albert Kahn, Engineer aInd Arclhitect
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PLATE It. -P--Os TR STATION, CAPITAL TRACTION COMPANY, WASHINGTON, D. C.
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:' i. Pri K\M. -H. I G'i ; \V. E. B .RR, MECH. ENGR,; L. B. STILLWEL, LECi ENG'IR.
FIG, 5. Cross Section through Foundry, Cupola Platform, etc.
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CROSS-SECTION
AND INTERIOR OF
BUILDINGS
STANDARD
FJC. '17.--Transverse Sectiotn of Machin: Shop-iwith Saw-tooth Roof of Steel Construction.
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INTERIOR OF MODERN FORGE AND FOUNDRY S1I-OW\ING
EXCELLENT LIGHTING AND ABSENCE OF FUMES
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FT'LLY ENCLOSED STIlWI\YS
FIG(. 1 5. PLANS OF SMOKE-IPIOUI'
STAIR TOWERS
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FAN MACHINE
HHEAT
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GALLERY WASHROOM
211 I 821 CONNECTION
23 2s
CARPENTER
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IBi B 40 X 60
S FIc.5 .-TNhan'of HIleauing System for Machine Shop.
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FIG. 60. -.Cross Section through Machine Shop.
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EXTIERIORK MODERN FORGE AND FOUNDRY
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ON.- -_ -_ --ft .c n 'm
INTERIOR AND (c(S-SEtCTION OF GENER1L-ELECTRIC
Fut NDR AY A HT PA.
nl,. 91.
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Fig. 13
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IIG. 95.
.
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IMPROVED SLOW-BURNING CONSTRUCTION SHOWING
COLUMN SPACING-_
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12"2 TH FlFA(,'TOR Y BUILDINGS
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FIG. 15.- MachineShop, of oneistory,: Slow-Burning Construction;, of Brick"and W.ood.-
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