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DUTCH ARCHITECTURE
BY LEWIS BROWN
ARCHITECTURE 675
WINTER 1977
DESIGN INFLUENCES
The Netherlands consists of the basins and delta lands
of the Rhine, Meuse ( Maas ) and Scheldt, the flat, low-lying
coastal areas and the hills of the Ardennes. The fertile land
and the great navigable rivers created and maintained a
number of Mediaeval states and prosperous cities, dependent
culturally on either France or Germany.
The Netherlands is a term which formerly embraced the
whole of the Netherlands ( Holland ) and Belgium. The physical
similarity of the low-lying parts did not result in the
maintenance of a firm political unity, chiefly owing to the
intrusion of external powers. These external powers formed
a great influence on the architecture of the time. Thus
the French cathedrals Gothic of Sens, Senlis, Noyon, and
Laon formed its basis, and from this grew the Brabantine
style which spread North in its pure form as far as
SHertogenbasch and Utrecht. From another direction, through
Cologne, the Gothic of Rheims and Amiens was the inspiration
for the cathedral of Utrecht in the mid-thirteenth century,
while the older traditions and the manners of Westphalia and
the Rhineland were continued in the eastern and northern parts
of Belguim and Holland. Thes latter include the long, and
narrow and low set sanctuary windows and, later, the 'hall'
churches, in which nave and aisles were approximately of
equal height.
During the Renaissance period the Dutch gained much
1
of the inspiration that influenced their architecture from
their neighbors to the south, the Belgians. These people
gained their richness of design from the influence of the
French, Spanish and Germans, but its strong individuality is
mainly due to national conditions and characteristics. It
is rich externally and internally, is rarely grand in scale
and as benefits the northern clime windows in domestic work
are even larger than the French and may occupy almost as
much wall space.
Lieven de Key and Hendrik de Keyser developed the
early Dutch style, usually plainer than the Belgian, until
1625 when it matured in a 'Palladian' phase of considerable
diginiy and quality, the principle exponents being Jacob
. Van Campen and Pieter Post. The Pollandian phase passed about
1670, merging easily into another of same twenty years
duration of positive austerity, external decoration being
almost wholly excluded. Next, Daniel Marot, a Huguenot refugee
introduced the masculine style of Louis XIV to the Dutch Court,
effective in influencing interior decoration rather than
architecture proper and thence forward French fashions
continued to be follower, though with sober external expression
and bold and effective planning.
Aside from direct influence from other cultures the
effect of geographical location and geological wealth, or
lack of it, had a very pronounced influence on Dutch architecture.
2
Holland being wholly without stones except around
Maastrict, and without forests too, had to import tufa,
limestone and sandstone from Germany and Belguim. This
deficiency early caused the Dutch to make bricks from her
clay soil, and from them; their buildings obtained a characteristic
simplicity, texture and soft coloring which is enhanced by
the reflected light of the seldom distant water.
The climate of Holland is similar to that of south
eastern England, but there are greater degrees of heat and
cold. An often gray and rainy climate gave rise to many and
large windows in houses and to great traceried windows in
churches and town halls. Window shutters against driving
rain and belts of trees as wind screens are common in Holland.
A-
/ The composition of building focades were designed in
terms of planes rather than sculptural form due to this.
Dutch architecture in the nineteenth century exhibited
considerable moderation. The cities of Holland succeeded in
escaping much of the disfigurement that other continental
cities experienced. The Rijks Museum and Cuyper's railway
station are examples of the mild eclecticism that governed large
buildings in Amsterdam.
On the other hand, Holland failed to take effective
part in the developments going on (under French leadership)
in painting and construction. The Dutch stood aside from
this activity; they never quite lost sight of the great tradition
3
they had to preserve. And the seventeenth and eighteenth
century mansions that stood along side their canals served
as quiet and constant reminders of the past.
The advent of contemporary Dutch architecture in the
twentieth century may be chiefly attributed to one man and
one building. The man H. P. Berlage and the building the
Amsterdam Stock Exchange. As we will later see this building
was a drastic departure from the normal architecture of the time.
The lead from this man no doubt helped cause the Stijl movement
in Dutch architecture. A movement which had an earth shaking
effect on architecture of the day, and whose theories are
still valid today.
DUTCH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
The plan of Gothic Dutch buildings is found to be short
compared to the width of the building. Radiating chapels
found in French Gothic of the time were usually omitted and
were replaced by a north east planned lady chapel. A fleche
was normally used at the crossing though lantern towers occur
also.
Unlike other examples of European Architecture the
Dutch very seldom used flying butresses as support for their
walls. Normally understated butressed were used to perform
structurally leaving the observer with the impression of a
very regular rythem of bays. Blind arcading became an important
feature of brick Gothic and was used as the principle means of
decoration.
Arches developed from the lancet type to three and four
centered types, or occasionally even to the Moorish cusped
arch. Where single western towers occur, the entrance may
be through the tower or by a further projecting porch;
other entrances often have marked importance. One of the
best instances being the south trancept portal at s'
Hertogenbasch. Windows were usually large and open due to the
geographic location. Tracery in rose windows was usually of
a simple nature because of the brick building material.
Building decoration began very slowly in Holland.but
caught on very quickly. Such building amenities as screens
Sand Socrament Houses became extremely decorated. Church
architecture of the time became a contest of who could
decorate in the grandest manner.
GOTHIC
St. Johns, s' Hertogenbosch (1370-1559)
This is a rare example of pure and rich Brabantine in
Holland, comparable with S. Peter, Louvain, and S. Waldru,
Mons. The rectilinear wall- panelling resembles English
Perpendicular; it is profusely decorated, with much sculpture
by Alard van Hameel (1478-1529).
Utrecht Cathedral (1254-67)
This is the major example of French cathedral-Gothic
in Holland, deriving from Amiens through Cologne; changing
detail from the apse westward through the choir to the transepts
is noticeable, especially in the omission of capitals. The nave
collapsed in the seventeenth century and the western axial tower
is isolated. Built between 1321-82 by Jan van Henegouwen,
it was an important Dutch prototype.
Gastle Of Muiden, Near Amsterdam (13th century)
Noted for the use of water as a defense. One of the
few European castles to do so.
DUTCH RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
r At first the Mediaeval church plan was retained, but
adapted by Protestants to new forms of worship. A variety
of centralized or semi-centralized plans on a. small scale
were the subject of Protestant experiment. Civic buildings
and large houses used the central block and balanced wing
forms, while the medium sized house and smaller civic building
were usually in simple square or rectangular forms; town
houses had narrow street fronts and were of great depth, often
with inner courts and light wells.
Walls were usually brick with stone dressing. Gables,
stepped or enriched with scrolls and other devices were common,
and often had projecting beams for hoists. Due to the dull
northern climate, window areas were large and tended to dwarf
the Orders; in town focades the ratio of window to solid
was high, and made possible by foundational piling solely
under the side walls, so that the -street front was little
else than a. screen.
Arcades were unusual, due to lack of strong sunlight,
but appeared under Italian influence in the early period.
Door ways were tall and richly decorated often with huge
fanlights; entrances had steps and perrons were common. Sash
type windows appeared after the middle of the sixteenth century
(probably a Dutch invention) but fell into disuse by the end
of the next century.
The early use of Orders was characterized by the
grotesque distortions favored by Floris and de Vries until
8 the true Renaissance Orders became common after the second
quarter of the sixteenth century.
In Dutch Protestant churches -often in contrast to their
general sobriety- screens, benches, pulpits, organ cases and
stained glass were richly designed. In houses of all sizes
great prosperity was reflected in:the richness of the interiors
in all periods often in contrast with plain exteriors.
Chimney pieces in the early Renaissance were major fields of
ornate extravagance, but during the sixteenth century,
taste, though often still exuberant, saw that ornament was more
widely and evenly distributed- in plaster ceilings, paneling
painted walls and ceilings staircase balustrades and fittings.
DUTCH RENAISSANCE
1. Town Hall Of Nijmegen (1554)
Architect-Herman van Herengrave
Curiously formed pediments above the windows and the
medallions with reliefs on the parapet below the roof are
only manifestations of the Renaissance. A good of Gothic
detail and Renaissance decoration.
13 2. Old Town Hall-The Hague (1564)
Architect-Unknown
Strongly inspired by the Antwerp, Belgium Town Hall, it
is an extremely modest building on a corner site. Even though
there are an even number of bays the skill of the architect
overrode this problem and produced a building which is both
balanced and pleasing to the eye.
S3. House Of Charles V,-Zwolle (1571)
Architect-Unknown
An example of the pilaster facade that was used to hint
a. Gable End. On this building the composition of the top
shows an unmistakable uncertainty: there is no straight
development of the pilaster gable to a well balanced unity.
't 4. The Three Hgrrinos-Deventer:(1575)
Architect-Unknown
The designer has put rows of pilasters on his principle
facade, but he did not know how to give this a decisive function
in the play of decoration'
1 5. Chancellery-Leeuwarden (1566-1571)
10.
Architect-Unknown
A Government building commissioned by King Philip II.
It was given a long frontage which shows no trace of the
classical or the Italian. This is an exception to the architecture
of the day.
6. Town Hall-Frankerer (1591-1594)
Architect-Unknown
SEven though the Dutch architecture of the day was disjointed
and bastardized this building shows the beginning of the unity
to come.
S7. The Town Hall-Leyden (1594)
Architect-Lieven de Key
This is an example of the strapwork, fretwork and other
petty ornament typical of the Early Renaissance in the Netherlands
generally, and popularized there as in Germany and Elizabethan
and Jacobean England by the books of Vredeman de Vries, principally
those appearing in 1565 and 1568.
I( 8. The Haarlem Weiga House (1598)
Architect-Lieven de Key
A particularly good example of the classical design
for public buildings of the day.
9. Meat Hall-Haariem (1602-1603)
Architect-Lieven de Key
One of de Key's most successful buildings. The scheme of
the Meat Hall has nothing new about it; the idea of a rectangular
block with a high roof between two steep gables could not
11.
have been more traditional. But de Key succeeded in turning
the traditional scheme into something which is at once
contemporary by means of a decorative treatment which combines
tauntness and vigour with a playful opulence, culminating in
the gables of the long side elevation. What specially
distinguishes him from the sixteenth century architects who
had delt with the problem of the decorative treatment of gables
is that he increases the ornamentation in richness and detail
from the bottomof the building to the top.
10. Amsterdam Exchange-Amsterdam (1608-1611)
Architect-Hendrick de Keyser
A building designed between his Amsterdam Zuiderker and
Amsterdam Westerkerk. This particular building is a close copy
with little varient of the London Exchange which he traveled
to see before designing his own building.
S11. Town Hall-Klundert (1621)
Architect-Unknown
A building by an unknown designer that exhibits the
influence of architect Hendrick de Keyser.
^' 12. St. Catherine's Gate-Utrecht (1621-1625)
Architect-Paulus Moreelse
A now destroyed example of the work of a painter turned
architect. Moreelse gained his inspiration for this building
from his travels through Italy. This piece of architecture may
be one of the main influences:.in the introduction of the
Italianate Classical style into Dutch design.
12.
'Z 13. The Mauritshuis-The Hague (1633)
Architect-van Campen and Pieter Post
n Built for Prince Maurice of Nassau, Instances the Dutch
Palladian phase in its flattened temple-like front in a
harmonious facadal treatment of brick and stone.
S14. Marekerk-Leyden (1639)
Architect-Arent van's-Gravesande
This church seems to have been influenced by S. Maria
della. Salute in Venice, It Consists of an octagonal domed
space with a wooden bell tower, and lower ambulatory.
Strong Ionic columns carry this high well lit drum above the
dome. The corners of the drum are supported by incurved butress
walls. The dome is entirely of wood, and the ambulatory has
a flat ceiling.
15. The Cloth Hall-Leyden (1640)
Architect-Arent van's-Gravensande
A further example of Dutch Palladianism.
Z 16. Huis Ten Bos-The Hague (1645)
Architect-Pieter Post
/7 It is a very simple brick palace of which the center is
a large cruciform domed hall, decorated under the direction of
Jacob van Campen with paintings in memory of the owners husband.
17. The New Church-Haarlem (1645-9)
Architect-van Campen
Q This has the Greek-Cross-in-square plan popular in Holland
13.
2 the arms of the cross being covered by wooden barrel vaults
meeting at a cross vault, the corner squares by flat ceilings-
a scheme similar to S. Martins's, Ludgate, London by Wren.
<'t 18. The New Church-The Hague (1649-56)
Architect-P. Noorwits and B. van Bassen
This plan being made up of two interlocking squares with
six projecting apsidal bays.
\ 19.. The Royal Palace-Amsterdam (1648-65)
Architect-Jacob van Campen
This is a major example of Dutch civic architecture
on an unusually large scale. Its style is Palladian in the
sense that it is of clear, simple ordonnance with no important
departures from strict Classical rule and that there is no
intrusion of ornament on to the architectural lines. There
is, however, a greater freedom in the design of an open cupola-
)' turret over the central, shallowly-projecting pavilion of
the two-tiered pilastered facade, standing on a low basement
storey, and the crowning pediment has an infilling of petty
sculpture.
OF 20. The Trippen Huis-Amsterdam(1662)
Architect-J. Vingboons
This is a larger example of such houses for the merchant
class.
6 21. The Town Hall- Enkhuizen (1686-88)
Architect-Steven Vennecool
This represents the later stage of the Palladian phase,
1'4.
achieving a soft plastic quality despite its being almost
completely devoid of decoration.
22. Chateau-Middachten (1686)
Architect-Steven Vennecool
Example of early Dutch Baroque.
217 23. No 8 Lange Vijverberg And The Royal Library-(1715)
The Hague (1735)
Architect-Daniel Marot
Q This building is of undecorated, Italianate character
inclining to the Baroque, now used as the Royal Library,
The Hague, also by Marot, shows in its Rococo ornament the
influence of French taste upon the Dutch court.
39 24. The Royal Theatre-The Hague (1765)
Architect-Pieter de-Swart
Originalally designed as a palace the building was
converted to the Royal Theatre. It shows the French influence
of the Louis XVI time period.
4-0 25. Het Paviljoen-Haarlem (1785)
Architect-Unknown
The finest example of the French LouisXVI spirit in Holland.
Built for the Amsterdam Banker-Hope and now the seat for the
provincial Government in North Holland. The whole of the front
is built in plastered brick- on the other sides the plaster has
unfortunately been removed. It seems plausible that an architect
from outside the republic is responsiblepfor the design.
15.
DUTCH CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE
There were whole decades in the second half of the
nineteenth century in which no architectural work of any
significance is encountered. Eclecticism smothered all
creative energy. Here and there- especially as the century
wore on voices were raised in protest, but they could do
nothing to alter conditions.
V The painter was able to withdraw from this overpowering
environment. The men who did the important work of this period
gave up all prospects of fame and audience and practiced their
art in seclusion. Cezanne an Van Gogh for example, buried
themselves in the solitude of Provence. The architect had
no such course open to him; not a single one managed to escape
from the atmosphere of eclecticism.
4i The twentieth century is a century of masses and it
is a century of science. The new style with its refusal to
accept craftsmanship and whims of design is eminently suitable
for a large anonymous clientele and with its sheer surfaces
and minimum of mouldings for the industrial production of
parts. Steel and glass and reinforced concrete did not
dictate the new style, but they belong to it.
New movements with strange names came into being. These
were initiated by the painters of the day and followed
closely by the architects. Such movements as Expressionism
and cubism influenced architects to heights which had not
been reached for two hundred years.
16.
\ o; The pinnacle of Dutch invention, the De Stijl movements
4) raised architecture of the 1920's to a height that is still
44 thought of as contemporary today, some fifty years later.
t^h
17.
DUTCH CONTEMPORARY
4-, 1. The Rijks Museum, Amsterdam (1877-1885)
Architect-P.H.J. Cuijpers
An example of the popular eclecticism in Dutch architecture
during the nineteenth century.
2. The Diamond Workers' Union Building-Amsterdam(1899-1900)
Architect-H.P; Berlage
Example of Romanesque eclecticism that influenced this
architect in his Amsterdam Stock Exchange.
3. Stock Exchange-Amsterdam (1897-1903)
Architect-Hendrik Petrus Berlage
This building indicates the state of Dutch architecture
41 at the turn of the century. It is the result of a competition
won by a native Dutch architect. Although Romanesque
A3) eclectic in nature, the metal roof structure of the Great Hall
combines iron, glass and brick in one supurb engineering
ensemble. One of the most interesting features of the building
is its fitness for urban environment. Its rectangular tower
is a dominant feature of the town.
p ? 4. The Dageraad Housing, Amsterdam (1918-1923)
Architect-Piet Kramer
Represented by the tenement blocks it was erected in
1922-3, which at that time showed the clever and ornamental
treatment of fine brickwork evidenced by the Amsterdam school
of architects.
18.
5. Schroder House-Utrecht (1924)
Architect-Gerrit Thomas Rietveld
The two story building is composed of horizontal and
vertical planes. Open balconies and window voids are organized
,- according to the same basic planer principles. The resulting
play of solids, voids, horizontals and verticals is so successful
That photographs of the building were laid on their side and
upside down to demonstrate that the same harmonious overall
% impression was created always.
Of the building design the architect said,"We limited
ourselves to primary forms, spaces and colors, since they are
not only elemental, but are free of other associations." At
that time, forms produced by machines were thought to be
too cold and hard,'and were notyet admired for their economy
and cleanness. Steel was therefore used quite openly in
this composition in order to show that there need not be any
contradiction between structure and beauty.
6 6. Housing Estate, Hook Of Holland-(1926-27)
Architect J.J.P. Oud
SExtreme economy in the use of materials and forms
has here produced a new beauty in residences designed on
ff a collective rather than individual basis. In this housing
estate, Oud expresses the striving, typical of the twenties,
towards a new type of architecture.
S7. The Vondelschool, Hilversum (1926)
19.
Architect-W.M. Dukok
The Vondelschool-which received an extension at the
entrance end in 1932-is very characteristic of Dudok mature
v style, which still echoes his early contact with the 'De Dtijl'
group of artists. Like the architects Klerk and Kramer and the
Amsterdam group in general, he adheres to fine brickwork as
his principal medium, but unlike them avoids fanciful effects,
instead giving his buildings a serene dignity, stressing the
horizontal lines and opposing the restfulness of large plain
areas of brickwork to the pungent rhythms of long, banded
windows.
S8. The Van Nelle Factory-Rotterdam (1927-30)
Architect J.A. Brinkmann
This is Holland's finest Modern building of the first
half of the century. Of reinforced concrete, the main eight-
storey block is in 'mushroom' construction (a system used by
Maillart as early as 1908), the respective floors being carried
on internal pillars which fan outwards at the top, the outer
walls being non-load bearing and supported by the floors.
Externally, the horizontal ribbon windows are admirably
balanced by the flow of form of the projecting tower blocks,
and afford an effective contrast of panels of plain wall.
Linked to the main block is a less high wing which sweeps
on a pleasant curve.
20.
S 9. Open Air School-Amsterdam (1930-1932)
Architect-Johannes Duiker
This building is a major example of the new approach
to school building, and indeed to architecture which emerged
A about 1930. It is placed diagonally across a square later
formed by new houses. One quarter of its ground plan, where
it faced south, was left open to provide balconies where
teaching could be done. The classrooms were opened up not
only to the light but also to the surrounding space.
10. Pieces Of Furniture and Objects D' Art
Which were influenced by the De Stijl movement.
7o
21.
Bibliography
1. Space, Time, and Architecture (5th Edition)
S. Giedion
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusettes.
2. An Outline of European Architecture
Nikolaus Pevsner
Penguin Books, Baltimore, Maryland
3. History of Modern Art
H.H. Arnason
Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
Harry N. Abrams, Inc., New York, New York
4. History of Art
H.W. Janson
Prentice- Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
Harry N. Abrams, Inc., New York, New York
5. Baroque Architecture
Christian Norberg-Schulz
Harry N. Abrams, Inc., New York, New York
6. Renaissance Architecture
Peter Murray
Harry N. Abrams, Inc., New York, New York
7. Modern Architecture in Color
Werner Hofmann and Udo Kultermann
The Viking Press, New York, New York
8. A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method ( 17th Edition)
Sir Banister Fletcher
Revised by R.A. Cordingley
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, New York
9. Dutch Art and Architecture 1600- 1800
Jacob Rosenberg
Penguin Books, Baltimore, Maryland
10. The De Still Group, Dutch Plastic Art
H.L.C. Jaffe
J.M. Meulenhoff, Amsterdam
11. The Modern Chair, 1850 to Today
Gilbert Frey
Architectural Book Publishing Company, New York, New York
Slide List- Source Numbers Refer to Bibliography
1. Map of the Netherlands
Source 8, page 567
2. St. John, 's-Hertogenbosch
Source 8, page 575
3. St. John, 's-Hertogenbosch
Source 8, page 582
4. Utrecht Cathedral
Source 8, page 575
5. Castle of Muiden, near Amsterdam
Source 8, page 575
6. Diagrams of Dutch Churches
Source 5, page 348
7. Town Hall, Leyden
Source 8, page 839
8. Church Tower, Ijsselstein
Source 6, page 356
9. Town Hall, Nijmegen
Source 9, page 179
10. Old Town Hall, The Hague
Source 9, page 181
11. House of Charles V, Zwolle
Source 9, page 182
12. House of Three Herrings, Deventer
Source 9, page 182
13. Chancellery, Leeuwarden
Source 9, page 183
14. Town Hall, Franeker
Source 9, page 183
15. Town Hall, Leyden
Source 9, page 186
16. Weigh House, Haarlem
Source 6, page 356
17. Meat Hall, Haarlem
Source 9, page 186
18. Amsterdam Exchange
Source 9, page 189
Slide List Continued- Source Numbers Refer to Bibliography
19. Town Hall, Klundert
Source 9, page 190
20. St. Catherine's Gate, Utrecht
Source 9, page 191
21. Mauritshuis, The Hague
Source 9, page 192
22. Mauritshuis, The Hague
Source 5, page 348
23. Marakerk, Leyden
Source 9, page 200
24. Cloth Hall, Leyden
Source 9, page 197
25. Huis Ten Bos, The Hague
Source 9, page 196
26. Huis Ten Bos, The Hague
Source 9, page 195
27. New Church, Haarlem
Source 9, page 185
28. New Church, Haarlem
Source 8, page 837
29. New Church, Haarlem
Source 9, page 200
30. New Church, The Hague
Source 5, page 349
31. Royal Palace, Amsterdam
Source 9, page 193
32. Royal Palace, Amsterdam
Source 8, page 834
33. Royal Palace, Amsterdam
Source 9, page 194
34. Trippenhuis, Amsterdam
Source 9, page 198
35. Town Hall, Enkhuizen
Source 8, page 826
36. Middachten Chateau
Source 9, page 198
37. Royal Library, The Hague
Source 8, page 826
Slide List Continued- Source Numbers Refer to Bibliography
38. No. 8 Lange Vijverberg, The Hague
Source 8, page 840
39. The Royal Theatre, The Hague
Source 9, page 203
40. Het Pavilijoen, Haarlem
Source 9, page 203
41. Project for Rosenberg House
Source 3, page 240
42. Painting by Van Doesburg
Source 10, page 33
43. Construction of Volume Relations
Source 3, page 238
44. Cafe de Unie, Rotterdam
Source 3, page 240
45. Huis ter Heide, Utrecht
Source 3, page 239
46. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
Source 8, page 1091
47. Diamond Workers Union Building, Amsterdam
Source 8, page 1118
48. Amsterdam Stock Exchange
Source 1, page 310
49. Amsterdam Stock Exchange
Source 7, page 125
50. Amsterdam Stock Exchange
Source 1, page 312
51. Amsterdam Stock Exchange
Source 7, page 124
52. Dageeraad Housing, Amsterdam
Source 8, page 1073
53. Schroder House, Utrecht
Source 10, page 26
54. Schroder House, Utrecht
Source 10, page 27
55. Schroder House Model
Source 3, page 232
56. Schroder House, Utrecht
Source 7, page 249
Slide List Continued- Source Numbers Refer to Bibliography
57. Schroder House, Utrecht
Source 7, page 247
58. Workers' Housing Estate, Hook of Holland
Source 3, page 239
59. Workers' Housing Estate, Hook of Holland
Source 7, page 257
60. Workers' Housing Estate, Hook of Holland
Source 7, page 255
61. Vondelschool, Hilversum
Source 8, page 1098
62. Van Nelle Factory, Rotterdam
Source 8, page 1109
63. Open Air School, Amsterdam
Source 7, page 285
64. Open Air School, Amsterdam
Source 7, page 287
65. Composition in Blue, Piet Mondrian
Source 3, page 232
66. Copy of 1919 Sideboard
Source 3, page 240
67. Chair by Gerrit Rietveld
Source 11, page 42
68. Chair by Gerrit Rietveld
Source 11, page 45
69. Chair by Gerrit Rietveld
Source 11, page 41
70. Schroder House, Amsterdam
Source 2, page 413
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